Relating Social Psychological Processes to Social Developmental Processes Jacquelynne S. Eccles University of Michigan Paper presented at the Gender Roles Conference San Francisco, April 2004

Overview of Presentation 3 Theoretical Approaches to Linking Social Psychological Processes to Social Development 3 Theoretical Approaches to Linking Social Psychological Processes to Social Development One Methodological Issue One Methodological Issue Two Research Examples Two Research Examples

Theoretical Issue 1 Extending Social Psychological Theories Linking Personal and Social Identities to the Ontogeny of Behavioral Choices Extending Social Psychological Theories Linking Personal and Social Identities to the Ontogeny of Behavioral Choices I discussed the research associated with this issue earlier in the self concept session. I discussed the research associated with this issue earlier in the self concept session. If you want details, I can send them to you. If you want details, I can send them to you.

Critical issues for this session Importance of developing comprehensive models to guide longitudinal work Importance of developing comprehensive models to guide longitudinal work Link between developmental changes in the salience of various identity domains and the need for identity formation as a developmental task Link between developmental changes in the salience of various identity domains and the need for identity formation as a developmental task Extending Social Psychological Theories Linking Personal and Social Identities to the Ontogeny of Behavioral Choices

Personal Experiences Subcultural Scripts, Beliefs, and Stereotypes Societal Beliefs, Images, and Stereotypes Personal Identities Self Concepts Personal Values Personal Goals Social Identities Salience Content Perception of Barriers Due to One’s Group Membership Expectations For Success Subjective Task Value Life Choices

Subjective Task Value Interest Value – Enjoyment one gets from doing the activity itself Interest Value – Enjoyment one gets from doing the activity itself Similar to Intrinsic Value Similar to Intrinsic Value Utility Value – Relation of the activity to one’s short and long range goals Utility Value – Relation of the activity to one’s short and long range goals Similar in some ways to Extrinsic Value Similar in some ways to Extrinsic Value But also includes Introjected Goals But also includes Introjected Goals

Subjective Task Value Continued Attainment Value: Extent to which engaging in the activity confirms an important component on one’s self- schema or increases the likelihood of obtaining a desired future self or avoiding an undesired future self. Attainment Value: Extent to which engaging in the activity confirms an important component on one’s self- schema or increases the likelihood of obtaining a desired future self or avoiding an undesired future self. Individuals seek to confirm their possession of characteristics central to their self-schema. Individuals seek to confirm their possession of characteristics central to their self-schema. Various tasks provide differential opportunities for such confirmation. Various tasks provide differential opportunities for such confirmation. Individuals will place more value on those tasks that provide the opportunities for this confirmation. Individuals will place more value on those tasks that provide the opportunities for this confirmation. Individuals will be more likely to choice those activities that have high attainment value. Individuals will be more likely to choice those activities that have high attainment value.

Subjective Task Value: Cost Psychological Costs Psychological Costs Fear of Success/Failure Fear of Success/Failure Anticipated Anxiety Anticipated Anxiety Financial Costs Financial Costs Lost Opportunities to Fulfill Other Goals or to do Other Activities Lost Opportunities to Fulfill Other Goals or to do Other Activities Social Costs of Punishment or Rejection Social Costs of Punishment or Rejection

Key Features of Model Focuses on Choice not on Deficits Focuses on Choice not on Deficits Points Out Importance of Studying the Origins of Individuals’ Perception of the Range of Possible Options Points Out Importance of Studying the Origins of Individuals’ Perception of the Range of Possible Options Focuses on the Fact that Choices are made from a Wide Range of Positive Options Focuses on the Fact that Choices are made from a Wide Range of Positive Options

Key Features of Model 2 Thus, the hierarchies of one’s Ability Self Concepts and Values are critical Thus, the hierarchies of one’s Ability Self Concepts and Values are critical These hierarchies can be quite fluid and easily influenced by These hierarchies can be quite fluid and easily influenced by Developmental Period of Individual and Associated Developmental Tasks Developmental Period of Individual and Associated Developmental Tasks Situational Demands and Opportunities Situational Demands and Opportunities Interaction of Social and Personal Identities with Current Situation Interaction of Social and Personal Identities with Current Situation

Key Features of Model 3 It is developmental, although this is hard to show on the figure It is developmental, although this is hard to show on the figure Developmental maturity influences the entire model Developmental maturity influences the entire model Developmental periods and their associated developmental tasks influence the hierarchies Developmental periods and their associated developmental tasks influence the hierarchies

Gender and Gender Roles influence both the content and the hierarchies of ability self concepts and values Gender and Gender Roles influence both the content and the hierarchies of ability self concepts and values Gender and Gender Roles influence the developmental tasks individuals must engage throughout their life spans Gender and Gender Roles influence the developmental tasks individuals must engage throughout their life spans Gender and Gender Roles influence the situational demands and opportunities individuals must cope with and adjust to throughout their life spans Gender and Gender Roles influence the situational demands and opportunities individuals must cope with and adjust to throughout their life spans How Does This Relate To Gender?

Other Two Theoretical Issues Extending General Self-Socialization Theories and Social Group Influences to Developmental Changes in Girls’ Behavior at Adolescence Extending General Self-Socialization Theories and Social Group Influences to Developmental Changes in Girls’ Behavior at Adolescence Extending Person Perception and Causal Attribution Work into Parental Influences on the Ontogeny of Children’s Self Perceptions Extending Person Perception and Causal Attribution Work into Parental Influences on the Ontogeny of Children’s Self Perceptions

Methodological Issues Variable versus Person or Pattern Centered Approaches Variable versus Person or Pattern Centered Approaches Standard regression and SEM methods used with longitudinal data sets assess the relations among variables and often tell us little about the developmental processes at the level of the individual Standard regression and SEM methods used with longitudinal data sets assess the relations among variables and often tell us little about the developmental processes at the level of the individual These methods are also designed to estimate the unique influence of each predictor – controlling for the influence of all other predictors These methods are also designed to estimate the unique influence of each predictor – controlling for the influence of all other predictors Developmental processes may be better represented by patterns of influences that operate in interaction with each other at a more wholistic level. Developmental processes may be better represented by patterns of influences that operate in interaction with each other at a more wholistic level. If this is true, developmentalists need to look at the newly emerging person or pattern-centered approaches as an alternative methodological approach to longitudinal data analysis. If this is true, developmentalists need to look at the newly emerging person or pattern-centered approaches as an alternative methodological approach to longitudinal data analysis.

Extending General Self- Socialization Theories and Social Group Influences to Developmental Changes in Girls’ Behavior at Adolescence

Explaining The Link Between Girls’ Pubertal Timing and Normbreaking Behavior Work by Håkan Stattin Margaret Kerr Therése Johansson

Early developing girls compared to on-time or later developing girls Engage in more normbreaking behaviors:Engage in more normbreaking behaviors: - at home (ignoring parents’ prohibitions, staying out late, run away from home) -at school (cheating, playing truant) -and during leisure (smoking hashish, getting drunk, vandalism, loitering, shoplifting) Have more strained relationships with parents and teachers Have more strained relationships with parents and teachers Are more likely to show declines in school achievement Are more likely to show declines in school achievement

WHY?

Stattin, Kerr, and Johansson hypothesis It is not about stress or emotional trauma from being off-timeIt is not about stress or emotional trauma from being off-time It is not about pre-existing problemsIt is not about pre-existing problems

Stattin, Kerr, and Johansson hypothesis It is about social influences that come about when early developed girls seek out similar peers in the normal way that most youths do

Views of Self Early developed girls will perceive themselves psychologically and socially more mature than their same-age peers. more concerned about autonomy and emancipation more concerned about autonomy and emancipation more interested in ”mature” behavior more interested in ”mature” behavior more interested in heterosexual contacts more interested in heterosexual contacts identify with peers on the ”same- maturity-stage ” identify with peers on the ”same- maturity-stage ”

Peer association Girls with early pubertal development will associate with peers who match their early developmental stance: establish heterosexual relationships (most often with older boyfriends) earlier than later developed girls,establish heterosexual relationships (most often with older boyfriends) earlier than later developed girls, seek out and will be sought out by peers who are chronologically older (but on the same maturity level).seek out and will be sought out by peers who are chronologically older (but on the same maturity level).

Through opposite-sex relations with older males and older peers, early maturing girls: encounter peer environments with more advanced social behavior (i.e. drinking, drug use, and norm-breaking behaviors), andencounter peer environments with more advanced social behavior (i.e. drinking, drug use, and norm-breaking behaviors), and are brought into leisure-time settings in which these types of behaviors are more typical.are brought into leisure-time settings in which these types of behaviors are more typical.

Early pubertal maturation Perceiving oneself as matured A more advanced social network Normbreaking behaviors

The IDA sample is a community sample of 466 girls, followed from age 10 into midlife (1965 – 1998). Age at menarche: before 11 yrs (Early) % before 11 yrs (Early) % at the age of % at the age of % at the age of % at the age of % 13 yrs or later (Later) % 13 yrs or later (Later) %

Do girls with early pubertal development perceive themselves as more mature than their age mates?

Early developed girls perceived themselves as more mature at age 14.5 yrs Early Later Percentage

YES, early developed girls perceived themselves as more mature also at yrs Early Later Percentage

Do early matured girls have more advanced peer networks?

Early developed girls associated more with chronologically older peers and working friends Early Later Percentage

Early developed girls were more likely to have a steady boyfriend at 14 yrs Early Later Percentage

Early developed girls had had sexual intercourse more often by yrs Early Later Percentage

Early pubertal maturation A more advanced social network Advanced social behavior – including normbreaking Their empirical studies suggest that: 1.pubertal maturation is an instigating condition for heterosexual relations. 2.the link between pubertal maturation and problem behavior disappears once heterosexual relationships are controlled

BUT If their hypothesis is correct, then early pubertal timing should be linked to normbreaking under certain conditions and not others

What kinds of conditions? Youths spend a lot of time away from home interacting with their peers Youths spend a lot of time away from home interacting with their peers So, leisure contexts should be important So, leisure contexts should be important

What would a leisure context look like in order for us to believe that early developed girls risk developing future social adjustment problems?

It should be a setting where: early developed girls can meet peers and boys who are older than they are.early developed girls can meet peers and boys who are older than they are. early developed girls can establish intimate relations with boys who have problematic social adjustment.early developed girls can establish intimate relations with boys who have problematic social adjustment.

In Europe and the US, many communities have provided alternatives for youths who aren’t interested in organized activities The idea is to keep youths off the streets and out of trouble It might be ordinary, local youth centers

Youth recreation centers could be a context where early developed girls can meet chronologically older peers, older boyfriends, and peers who are antisocial.

This is what characterizes the centers: 1.Youths of different ages 2.Both boys and girls 3.High concentration of antisocial boys

Early puberty Intimate relations with boys at the age of 15 Normbreaking at the age of 15 For girls who went to youth centers at age 13

Are girls who frequent youth centers more likely to start engaging in early sexual behavior?

Visiting these centers at the age of 13: EarlyLate Pubertal timing Intercourse (15 yrs) seldom YES

Visiting these centers at the age of 13: Early developed girls who often visit the centers are more sexually active 2 years later Earlylate Pubertal timing Intercourse (15 yrs) seldom often

Early puberty Intimate relations with boys at the age of 15 Normbreaking at the age of 15 For girls who went to youth centers at age 13

Are girls who frequent youth centers more likely to engage in normbreaking behavior?

0 1 2 Pubertal timing Normbreaking (15 yrs) seldom Early Late Yes Visiting the centers at the age of 13:

Early developed girls who often went to the centers were especially high on normbreaking 2 years later Early Late Visiting the centers at the age of 13:

Is going to the youth centers and getting involved with boys a particular risk condition for early developing girls?

little much Seldom visit the centers Often visit the centers Explaining normbreaking at the age of 15 from the interaction between center attendance, pubertal development, and heterosexual relations. To be an early developed girl, to develop intimate heterosexual relations, and to often visit the centers – this is a real risk for normbreaking.

Conclusions The Stattin et al work illustrates the power of person centered approaches The Stattin et al work illustrates the power of person centered approaches It also illustrates the power of carefully breaking down a complex question into a series of tight theoretical propositions based in developmental social psychology It also illustrates the power of carefully breaking down a complex question into a series of tight theoretical propositions based in developmental social psychology

Extending Person Perception and Causal Attribution Work into Parental Influences on the Ontogeny of Children’s Self Perceptions

How Might Parents Influence Their Children’s Behavior to Become More Gender Stereotypic? How might parents influence children’s self perceptions and behavior? How might parents influence children’s self perceptions and behavior? How might gender-role stereotypes affect these influences? How might gender-role stereotypes affect these influences?

PARENT, FAMILY, & NEIGHBORHOOD CHARACTERISTICS (e.g., Education, Occupation, Number of Children, Ethnicity, Neighborhood) PARENTS’ GENERAL BELIEFS & BEHAVIOR (e.g., Gender Role Stereotypes, General & Specific Personal Values, Child Rearing Beliefs, Emotional Warmth, Involvement in Activities) PARENT SPECIFIC BEHAVIORS (e.g., Time Spent with Child, Encouragement to Participate in Activities, Provision of Toys, Equipment, Lessons, Training of Specific Personal Values, Attributions for Child’s Successes/Failures) CHILD OUTCOMES (e.g., Self-Perceptions, Subjective Task Values, Interest Values, Future Goals, Performance Expectations, Activity Choices, Performance) PARENTS’ CHILD SPECIFIC BELIEFS (e.g., Perceptions of Child’s Abilities/Talents, Perceptions of Child’s Temperament, Perceptions of the Value of Various Skills for Child, Perceptions of Child’s Interests) CHILD AND SIB CHARACTERISTICS (e.g., Sex, Past Performance, Aptitudes, Temperament, Attitudes) Eccles’ Parent Socialization Model

PARENT, FAMILY, & NEIGHBORHOOD CHARACTERISTICS (e.g., Education, Occupation, Number of Children, Ethnicity, Neighborhood) PARENTS’ GENERAL BELIEFS & BEHAVIOR (e.g., Gender Role Stereotypes, General & Specific Personal Values, Child Rearing Beliefs, Emotional Warmth, Involvement in Activities) PARENT SPECIFIC BEHAVIORS (e.g., Time Spent with Child, Encouragement to Participate in Activities, Provision of Toys, Equipment, Lessons, Training of Specific Personal Values, Attributions for Child’s Successes/Failures) CHILD OUTCOMES (e.g., Self-Perceptions, Subjective Task Values, Interest Values, Future Goals, Performance Expectations, Activity Choices, Performance) PARENTS’ CHILD SPECIFIC BELIEFS (e.g., Perceptions of Child’s Abilities/Talents, Perceptions of Child’s Temperament, Perceptions of the Value of Various Skills for Child, Perceptions of Child’s Interests) CHILD AND SIB CHARACTERISTICS (e.g., Sex, Past Performance, Aptitudes, Temperament, Attitudes) Eccles’ Parent Socialization Model

PARENT, FAMILY, & NEIGHBORHOOD CHARACTERISTICS (e.g., Education, Occupation, Number of Children, Ethnicity, Neighborhood) PARENTS’ GENERAL BELIEFS & BEHAVIOR (e.g., Gender Role Stereotypes, General & Specific Personal Values, Child Rearing Beliefs, Emotional Warmth, Involvement in Activities) PARENT SPECIFIC BEHAVIORS (e.g., Time Spent with Child, Encouragement to Participate in Activities, Provision of Toys, Equipment, Lessons, Training of Specific Personal Values, Attributions for Child’s Successes/Failures) CHILD OUTCOMES (e.g., Self-Perceptions, Subjective Task Values, Interest Values, Future Goals, Performance Expectations, Activity Choices, Performance) PARENTS’ CHILD SPECIFIC BELIEFS (e.g., Perceptions of Child’s Abilities/Talents, Perceptions of Child’s Temperament, Perceptions of the Value of Various Skills for Child, Perceptions of Child’s Interests) CHILD AND SIB CHARACTERISTICS (e.g., Sex, Past Performance, Aptitudes, Temperament, Attitudes) Eccles’ Parent Socialization Model

Parents’ Perceptions of Their Children’s Math Ability Question: Do parents’ perceptions of their children’s academic abilities predict the children’s own confidence in their academic abilities? YES! Especially in the Elementary School Years

 Childhood and Beyond (CAB) longitudinal study ( )  Cohort-sequential Design (children in K, 1, 3 in 1989) followed each year for 12 years  912 children (451 girls, 461 boys) and their parents – Primarily middle class families

Measures on CAB Study Teachers’ Ratings of Each Child’s Math Ability Teachers’ Ratings of Each Child’s Math Ability Parents’ Ratings of Their Own Child’s Math Ability (e.g., How good is (CHILD’S NAME) at math? How well is (XX) doing in math this year? How well will (XX) do next year in math? - rated on 7 point scales) Parents’ Ratings of Their Own Child’s Math Ability (e.g., How good is (CHILD’S NAME) at math? How well is (XX) doing in math this year? How well will (XX) do next year in math? - rated on 7 point scales)

CAB Measures continued Child’s Rating of His or Her Own Math Ability Child’s Rating of His or Her Own Math Ability (e.g., How good are you at math? How good at math are you compared to other subjects? How good at math are you than other children? )

Teacher’s Rating Mother’s Wave 2 Rating Child’s Wave 2 Rating Of Own Math Ability Mother’s Wave 3 Rating Child’s Wave 3 Rating of Own Math Ability CAB

Parents’ Beliefs and Expectations Have Bigger Impact on Their Children’s Math and Language Arts Abilities than Do Teachers and School Marks, Particularly in the Elementary School Years Parents’ Beliefs and Expectations Have Bigger Impact on Their Children’s Math and Language Arts Abilities than Do Teachers and School Marks, Particularly in the Elementary School Years Parents’ Early Confidence in Their Child’s Academic Abilities Reduce the Amount of Decline in the Children’s Own Confidence in Their Academic Abilities Parents’ Early Confidence in Their Child’s Academic Abilities Reduce the Amount of Decline in the Children’s Own Confidence in Their Academic Abilities

Impact of These Beliefs on Daughters’ Math Confidence and Interest: MSALT Study Teacher’s Rating of Girls’ Math Ability Mother’s Rating of Girl’s Math Ability Mother’s Rating of Girl’s English Ability Girl’s Rating of Own Math Ability Girl’s Interest In Math

Gender and Parents’ Perceptions Does the gender of one’s child influence parents’ perceptions? Does the gender of one’s child influence parents’ perceptions? YES YES Why? Why?

Gendered Parental Beliefs There are “real” differences between girls’ and boys’ abilities and interests There are “real” differences between girls’ and boys’ abilities and interests Parents’ interpret girls’ and boys’ behaviors and performances differently Parents’ interpret girls’ and boys’ behaviors and performances differently Both of the above Both of the above

Role of Parents Perceptions of how difficult math is for sons versus daughters Perceptions of how difficult math is for sons versus daughters Parents of daughters think the math is harder for their child than parents of sons even though the girls get better grades than the boys Parents of daughters think the math is harder for their child than parents of sons even though the girls get better grades than the boys Parents of daughters think their child is having to work harder to do well in mathematics than parents of sons Parents of daughters think their child is having to work harder to do well in mathematics than parents of sons Parents of daughters think that they are trying harder in mathematics than in English Parents of daughters think that they are trying harder in mathematics than in English

Parents’ Rating of Adolescent Child’s Effort in Math and English: MSALT Study

Role of Parents Expectations for future performance in mathematics Expectations for future performance in mathematics Parents of daughters have lower expectations for their child’s future performance in math than parents of sons Parents of daughters have lower expectations for their child’s future performance in math than parents of sons Parents of daughters think that they will do better in the future in English than in mathematics Parents of daughters think that they will do better in the future in English than in mathematics

Parents’ Expectations for Adolescent Child’s Future Performance: MSALT Study

Parents’ Causal Attributions for Child’s Success: MSALT

Child’s Sex Mother’s Attribution of Child’s Success in Math to Talent Child’s Current Competence Difficulty of Domain for Child * Expectations for Child’s Future Course Performance Expectations for Child’s Likely Career Success* Child’s Natural Talent in Math* Mother’s Perceptions of:

Child’s Sex Mother’s Attribution of Child’s Success in English to Talent Child’s Current Competence* Difficulty of Domain for Child* Expectations for Child’s Future Course Performance* Expectations for Child’s Likely Career Success* Child’s Natural Talent in Math* Mother’s Perceptions of: -.15 (-.22) -.15 (-.18) -.15 (-.20)

MEDIATING ROLE OF PARENTS’ CAUSAL ATTRIBUTIONS FOR SUCCESS IN ENGLISH ON PARENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF CHILD’S ENGLISH ABILITY CHILD’S SEX WAVE 1: PARENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF CHILD’S ENGLISH ABILITY INNATE TALENT TEACHER QUALITY PARENT HELP SKILL WAVE 2: PARENTS’ PERCEPTION OF CHILD’S ENGLISH ABILITY R² = 62%

Child’s Sex Mother’s Attribution of Child’s Success in Sports to Talent Child’s Current Competence* Difficulty of Domain for Child* Child’s Natural Talent in Math* Mother’s Perceptions of:.13 (.20).06 (.13)

Specific Information on Child Cultural Beliefs Parents’ Previous Experiences Parents’ General/ Category-Based Beliefs Parents’ Child Specific/ Target-Based Beliefs and Perceptions Parents’ Efficacy as Influence on Child’s Skill Acquisition Value Parents Place on Various Skills

Stereotypes Sex x Stereotypes Sex Independent Estimate of Child’s “Actual” Ability Parents’ Ability Perceptions Child’s Ability Perceptions

Gender Stereotype for Math Sex of Child X Gender Stereotype of Math Sex Teacher’s Rating of Child’s Math Ability Parents’ Perception of Child’s Math Ability Child’s own Math Ability Perception (.35).47 MSALT