Reporting the Research Lecture 10

Organization of this lecture Reporting the Research: Types of Reports Components of the Research Report Writing the Methods/Procedures and Findings Writing the Conclusions Publishing Authorship

Lectures 5 – 9 have focused mostly on the research proposal Lectures 5 – 9 have focused mostly on the research proposal. Little attention is given to carrying out the research, which is covered in other courses. This final lecture focuses on reporting the research, after the research plan has been implemented and the research conducted. Reporting entails describing and explaining how the research results were obtained (ie. the research process) and explaining the results. (also review tips on writing in Lecture 5).

Types of Reports There are many different formats for reporting research; journal articles, technical research reports, monographs or books, graduate theses or dissertations. Research is also reported orally at professional meetings, seminars, symposia, and workshops. These oral reports, however, are usually based on previous written reports.

To reach other audiences, other publications must be used Journal articles are the most condensed form of writing. Journals have severe space limitations and often all the details of a complex research project can’t be presented in one article. They are the most “prestigious” format for reporting disciplinary work. Involve a peer-review process which evaluates quality and importance of a paper They receive wide distribution to disciplinary and subject-matter readers To reach other audiences, other publications must be used Sometimes, research can be written as journal articles as well as other formats to reach different users. Be careful, though, not to violate exclusive publication rights of journals – get permission!

Graduate theses and dissertations tend to be on the other extreme of length and completeness This is the report of the student’s work to his/her graduate committee These tend to be long and sometimes more wordy than necessary. But completeness is considered more important than efficiency in this writing. (In this respect, they are opposite to journal articles.)

Components of a Research Report The components of a research report often include: Title, Acknowledgements, Abstract, Table of Contents, Introduction, Literature Review, Conceptual Framework, Methods and Procedures, Results, Summary and Conclusions Note the similarities to the project proposal – sometimes sections of the proposal can be used directly in the report. The above sections apply mostly to graduate theses and dissertations, not journal articles which tend to be much briefer.

Title Acknowledgements Abstract Same advice as for writing Proposal Titles Authors, affiliations, keyword and similar information often on title page Acknowledgements Recognize the assistance and support of individuals and organizations, especially funding Abstract A compact summary of the research report, sometimes called “executive summary” Extremely important – it is the only thing most people will read (in deciding to read your paper)

Table of Contents Introductions Review of Literature A listing or outline of the organization of the report. It shows headings, subheadings and other divisions. Sometimes includes lists of Tables and Figures (esp. in thesis or dissertation) Journal papers usually delete this section Introductions Styles for introductions vary, from long and detailed to short or even absent. Review of Literature Serves the same purpose as in the research proposal

Methods and Procedures Conceptual Framework Likewise, serves the same purpose as in the proposal. Sometimes used directly from the proposal, but usually undergoes some refinement. May be eliminated if readers are non-economists. Methods and Procedures This section explains how the analysis portion of the research was conducted It includes data collection and manipulation, data sources, analytical procedures, models developed and used, empirical procedures and techniques, and analyses conducted Also includes problems encountered and how they were addressed.

Summary and Conclusions Results (Findings) Presents and explains the results of the analysis. This is the end product of all the analyses from which objectives were either achieved or not. Hypotheses have been tested and the results reported here. Summary and Conclusions This provided the reader with a general understanding of the research project. It most often includes an overview of the entire study, emphasizing problems, objectives, methods, procedures and results Conclusions represent the researcher’s interpretations of the results

K. List of References L. Appendices A listing of all references used in every part of the report. Often very similar to the research proposal. L. Appendices These can be very useful, but are not always used. They can be used to present material that might disrupt the flow of thoughts in the report (eg. too much detail) or include information of interest to only some readers. eg. Mathematical proofs or derivations , some statistical estimations or tests

Writing the Methods/Procedures and Findings Writing these sections in a research report can have some important differences from the proposal First, the Methods are largely written for other economists. Others may be interested – but will tend to leave judgments of the validity of methods and procedures to the economists. The effectiveness of this sections depends on organization and thoroughness. The procedures need to be described in a logical sequence.

Methods / Procedures …cont. Explain the data used, their source, and any manipulations or adjustments of the data. Explain and justify your analytical assumptions. Also explain models you may have used and be explicit about assumptions made. Describe problems you may have encountered and how they were resolved. Also, note unsuccessful approaches, techniques and procedures – this may help others to avoid problems or mistakes.

Methods / Procedures …cont. Be sure readers know how calculations were made and estimates derived. Define all variables, including units of measurement. (These details are easily overlooked, but are important.) Use graphs or other visual aids where appropriate to increase understanding by the reader. eg. A diagram of a multisector model may help to make linkages and equations used in the model more clear

Results (Findings) This presents and explains the results of the study. Validity of hypotheses are discussed, along with various test of validity used. Don’t just present empirical estimates – these must be analyzed, interpreted and possibly tested to make findings complete. The empirical results are often only the beginning of the most meaningful part of the research – economic understanding, expertise and insight are needed to fully interpret the meaning and implications of the estimates.

Results (Findings) … cont. Tables and figures are often effectively used to present findings. They help to organize and emphasize information in the findings. A recommended approach to writing this section is to construct the tables and figures that form the core of the findings first – then write the narrative which describes and explains the tables and figures.

Writing the Conclusions Sometime people confuse Conclusions and Results (Findings). Findings address and test hypotheses, while Conclusions are concerned with implications or tests of hypotheses. Conclusions address questions of “so what”? Conclusions extrapolate beyond the findings – examining and interpreting the implications of the study. Conclusions allow judgment of the researcher about implications of the study. This judgment must be supported by logic, but is subjective.

“Conclusions are a final inductive phase of the research, which are a matter of judgment … generally it is wiser to understate rather than to overstate.” You may offer insights about the implications of your study and findings of other studies. Policy implications of your study may be considered – even if these were not among the objectives of the study. Conclusions may specify what the study implies as well as what it does not imply. Researchers may see a need to avoid improper use of the research results.

Publishing Written research reports communicate knowledge within the research and scientific community. Publications are the primary means of disseminating research knowledge. Once published, research results become public knowledge – however, original ideas must always be recognized. In addition to journal publications, other outlets include, technical bulletins or reports, proceedings papers, symposia, and workshop papers.

Among the common reasons that proposed refereed publications fail to be accepted are: Inadequate identification of a research problem Inappropriate or unclear methods and procedures Inappropriate material for the proposed publication Failure to communicate what is important and original Poor organization.

Authorship This can be a sensitive matter which deserves careful consideration. Credit in research paper is recognized in three ways; Citations or references Authorship Acknowledgement Authorship is the most prestigious type of credit, and all persons “directly” involved in the research and making “substantive” contributions should be included as authors.

Interdisciplinary research may result in special difficulties in recognizing contribution and authorship Laboratory and field sciences, place special emphasis on the generation of data (sometimes as the end product of research) Economists are likely to view such data as “inputs” to their research, which only requires acknowledgement. Conversely, laboratory and field scientists may assume that activities (such as determining economic implications) are not part of “research” and thus don’t deserve inclusion in authorship.

Order of authorship can be a difficult issue Order of authorship can be a difficult issue. First author is generally assumed to have had the greatest involvement in the research. The inclusion of administrators or advisors as authors, even if they had little to do with the research, can be a contentious issue. It is best to discuss authorship up front and openly among all involved in the research.