Biological diversity (1980) Biodiversity (1985, 1986) A Shifted Focus Nature not self-contained or equilibrial (various time scales) Human influence widespread, humans depend on environment The extinction crisis, habitat critical, and the pure effects of diversity Tropical forest loss =Biodiversity focus

Conservation responses Individual species or groups (Intrinsic rights and utilitarianism)Individual species or groups (Intrinsic rights and utilitarianism) Wild, pristine, human-free places (Preservation Ethic)Wild, pristine, human-free places (Preservation Ethic) Wise use, sustained yield, sustainability (Resource Conservation Ethic)Wise use, sustained yield, sustainability (Resource Conservation Ethic) Holism of Leopold, people in the equation (Evolutionary-Ecological Land Ethic)Holism of Leopold, people in the equation (Evolutionary-Ecological Land Ethic) And now: biodiversityAnd now: biodiversity

The floor is open Defining Biodiversity

Extremes Narrow definition: species richnessNarrow definition: species richness

The ATBI in Great Smoky Mountains National Park

Caves to treetops

As of 2007, 860 species new to science

As of ,000 species new to the Park

Why is it so hard to answer the questions: How many species are there? When will we be done?

How many species are there? “It reminds me of the question we used to get all the time at Mammoth Cave: How many miles of unexplored cave are there?” Phil Francis, Then Assistant Superintendent Now Superintendent BLRI Problem: Scale Dependence

The variety of life in all its forms, levels and combinations. Includes ecosystem diversity, species diversity, and genetic diversity IUCN, UNEP and WWF, 1991 IUCN, UNEP and WWF, 1991 Defining Biodiversity

Biodiversity is the variability among all living organisms from all sources, including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems. Convention on Biological Diversity

Biological diversity is the variety and variability among living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur…For biological diversity, these items are organized at many levels, ranging from complete ecosystems to the chemical structures that are the molecular basis of heredity. US Congress Office of Technology Assessment 1987

The totality of the inherited variation of all forms of life across all levels of variation, from ecosystem to species to gene. Edward O. Wilson

Biodiversity means the whole variety of life on Earth. Biodiversity is the grand diversity of life on Earth and all the interconnections that support these myriad forms of life. Biodiversity…is perhaps most commonly defined as "the full variety of life on Earth."

Biodiversity is the variation of life within a given ecosystem, biome, or the entire Earth. Biodiversity as found on Earth today consists of many millions of distinct biological species, the product of four billion years of evolution. Biodiversity as found on Earth today consists of many millions of distinct biological species, the product of four billion years of evolution. The variation of life at all levels of organization. Wikipedia

Extremes Narrow definition: species richnessNarrow definition: species richness Inclusive definition (Noss):Inclusive definition (Noss): –Genes, species, ecosystems –Composition, structure, function/process

4 Biodiversity problems Definition Set point Scale dependence The equality and inequality of species

2. Set Point Universality/Historic Constraint We seek universal principles, some conservation answers are dependent on historic condition or precedence What is the RIGHT level of biodiversity?

3.Scale dependence Comparing places: Coastal Plain Savanna vs. Tropical Rain Forest

Comparing times (detecting change): Logging, Exotic invasion 3.Scale dependence

4. The equality and inequality of species Human valueHuman value Range/Abundance: Rarity, Native/AlienRange/Abundance: Rarity, Native/Alien PhylogenyPhylogeny Evolutionary potentialEvolutionary potential Ecological roleEcological role Representativeness, SurrogacyRepresentativeness, Surrogacy

Surrogacy in conservation planning Data are incomplete: Can some species be surrogates for biodiversity? FlagshipFlagship Focal, IndicatorFocal, Indicator Keystone (driver-passenger species)Keystone (driver-passenger species) UmbrellaUmbrella

World Wildlife Fund

Indicator Species

Keystone Species

Ecosystem Engineer Species

Ecological Role: Little things, Big things Wilson 1987 Terborgh 1988

Top Predators Ecological meltdown in predator-free forest fragmentsEcological meltdown in predator-free forest fragments –Terborgh et al. 2001, Science 294: Damming led to hilltops becoming islands; large predators lost, herbivores increased (ants 100x), plant cover decreasedDamming led to hilltops becoming islands; large predators lost, herbivores increased (ants 100x), plant cover decreased

Top Predators Introduced predators transform subarctic islands from grassland to tundraIntroduced predators transform subarctic islands from grassland to tundra –Croll et al. 2005, Science 307: Foxes preyed on birds which then deposited less ocean-derived N, leading to successionFoxes preyed on birds which then deposited less ocean-derived N, leading to succession

Top Predators Are predators good for your health? Evaluating evidence for top-down regulation of zoonotic disease reservoirs.Are predators good for your health? Evaluating evidence for top-down regulation of zoonotic disease reservoirs. –Ostfeld and Holt 2004, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2: Predators decrease, rodents increase, transmission of disease to humans increasesPredators decrease, rodents increase, transmission of disease to humans increases

Ecology of Fear, Yellowstone NP

Ecology of Fear, Zion NP

The Rivet Hypothesis The pure effects of diversity What is the relationship of function to diversity?What is the relationship of function to diversity? –Fisher’s fundamental theorem of natural selection –What is the FORM of the function? LinearLinear SaturatingSaturating Hump-shapedHump-shaped

The Goldilocks problem Not too hot, not too cold, but just rightNot too hot, not too cold, but just right Species have ranges of tolerance and optima for given environmental parametersSpecies have ranges of tolerance and optima for given environmental parameters Species tend to have different set pointsSpecies tend to have different set points A particular change in the environment or conservation strategy will be good for some species and bad for othersA particular change in the environment or conservation strategy will be good for some species and bad for others

Biodiversity Species richness (taxonomic diversity)Species richness (taxonomic diversity) Functional trait diversityFunctional trait diversity AbundanceAbundance Species interactionsSpecies interactions

Functional traits ComplimentarityComplimentarity –Efficiency of use –Resilience –Adaptability RedundancyRedundancy –Insurance (rivets, if rivets are all equal) –Stability –Resistance

How would you phrase the question & test the surrogacy idea? FlagshipFlagship Focal, IndicatorFocal, Indicator Keystone (driver-passenger species)Keystone (driver-passenger species) UmbrellaUmbrella

FlagshipFlagship Focal, IndicatorFocal, Indicator Keystone (driver-passenger species)Keystone (driver-passenger species) UmbrellaUmbrella Initial capture of biodiversity Ongoing process of loss How would you phrase the question & test the surrogacy idea?

5 Threats Habitat loss and fragmentationHabitat loss and fragmentation Direct taking of speciesDirect taking of species Invasive speciesInvasive species Changes in physical and chemical environmentChanges in physical and chemical environment Change in natural process: fire, flood, predationChange in natural process: fire, flood, predation