“This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission over a network: preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program.” Learning Disabilities Chapter Seven

“Copyright© Allyn & Bacon 2006” Definitions and Classifications Definitions Definitions vary considerably. Field’s unique and rapid evolution. Strong interdisciplinary nature. Samuel Kirk- specific learning disability. Learning disabilities are characterized by delays, deviations, and performance discrepancies in basic academic subjects not attributed to mental retardation, sensory deficits, or emotional disturbances. Learning disabilities is an umbrella label.

“Copyright© Allyn & Bacon 2006” Definitions and Classifications IDEA ’04 and Joint Committee Definitions IDEA - a disorder of one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations.

“Copyright© Allyn & Bacon 2006” Includes perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. Does not include learning problems which are primarily the results of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. The IDEA definition describes primarily what are not learning disabilities. Definitions and Classifications

“Copyright© Allyn & Bacon 2006” Definitions and Classifications The National Joint Committee for Learning Disabilities- definition includes several important elements not stated in IDEA A general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders. People with learning disabilities manifest significant difficulties in school performance. Learning disabilities are lifelong problems.

“Copyright© Allyn & Bacon 2006” Classification A complex constellation of behaviors and symptoms characterized by three major elements in its historical classification systems: Discrepancy- refers to the notion that there is an identifiable gap between intelligence and achievement in particular areas. Heterogeneity- refers to the differing array of academic domains where children often demonstrate performance problems. Exclusion- reflects the idea that learning disabilities cannot be due to the presence of other conditions.

“Copyright© Allyn & Bacon 2006” Definitions and Classifications IDEA’ 04 recognizes the controversy surrounding the use of a “discrepancy formula” as the only criteria for determining eligibility. IDEA’ 04 no longer requires school districts to identify “severe discrepancy.” Under IDEA’ 04, schools now have the option of using a process that determines a child’s “response to intervention” (RTI) that is scientific and research based.

“Copyright© Allyn & Bacon 2006” Prevalence Estimates vary from 2.7 percent to 30 percent. A reasonable estimate of prevalence is 5 percent to 10 percent of the school age population. 2.9 million children served under IDEA (nearly 50%). Variations due to public and educational policy and assessment accuracy.

“Copyright© Allyn & Bacon 2006” Characteristics Reading Students with learning disabilities often have reading problems. Word knowledge and recognition. Generalization of letter patterns. Drawing analogies with flexibility. Use of context clues and background knowledge. Ability to identify important ideas. Reading affects other areas. Instruction that combines different methods may serve better than single method interventions. More severe learning disability other means to access the information.

“Copyright© Allyn & Bacon 2006” Characteristics Writing and Spelling Students with learning disabilities often have different writing patterns. Developmental delays in motor skills Problems with spatial concepts Letter reversal and mirror writing Relationship between reading and handwriting? Students with learning disabilities also may have problems with spelling skills. Omitting letters or adding unnecessary ones Letter order confusion.

“Copyright© Allyn & Bacon 2006” Characteristics Mathematics Students with learning disabilities often have difficulty with mathematics. Counting. Writing numbers. Mastering simple math concepts.

“Copyright© Allyn & Bacon 2006” Characteristics Intelligence Above average or near average intelligence. Secondary behavioral or emotional concerns. Variability between measured intelligence and performance. Intra-individual differences among skill areas.

Characteristics Learning Characteristics Perception difficulties represent an array of behavior abnormalities rather than a single characteristic. Discrimination problems. Visual discrimination may be unable to distinguish one visual stimulus from another. Auditory discrimination may be unable to distinguish between the sounds of different words or syllables or to identify certain environmental sounds. Auditory blending. Auditory memory. Auditory association. Haptic sensory system deficits result in problems with touch and information transmitted through body movement, position, and kinesthetic information.

“Copyright© Allyn & Bacon 2006” Causation Structural neurological damage or some type of neurological activation abnormality. Maturational delay of the neurological system. Genetic abnormalities. Environmental factors. Dietary inadequacies. Radiation. Smoking. Drinking. Drug consumption.

“Copyright© Allyn & Bacon 2006” Assessment Formal assessment is conducted by administering standardized instruments, including intelligence and achievement tests. Informal assessment is conducted through the use of teacher made tests or techniques. Students with learning disabilities are assessed using both norm and criterion referenced tests. Norm referenced assessment compares an individual’s skill or performance with that of others. Criterion referenced assessment compares an individual’s performance with a desired criterion level.

“Copyright© Allyn & Bacon 2006” Assessments Curriculum based measurement (CBM) Uses direct and frequent measurements of students’ performance Sensitive to students’ learning patterns and growth Provides useful feedback to teachers about the effectiveness of their instruction Use of comprehensive informal assessments to determine: Patterns of errors Levels of performance Descriptions of specific skills

“Copyright© Allyn & Bacon 2006” The elementary school years Academic Instruction and Support Flexible and multiple services or supports. Early intervention. Mathematics. Manipulatives. Commercial programs are available. Computer technology.

“Copyright© Allyn & Bacon 2006” Use of Technology Technology can: Augment an individual’s strengths Compensate for effects of disabilities Provide alternative modes of performing tasks Assistive technology can reduce barriers Software exists that: Helps students take notes and create graphic organizers Recognizes and reads text to students Word processors help spelling, definitions, and grammar

“Copyright© Allyn & Bacon 2006” The elementary school years Reading Pre-reading activities. Guided practice with feedback. Direct teaching of skills in summarizing. Base and sequence instruction within developmental frameworks. Individualized and self directed instruction. Specific skills oriented reading instruction. Synthetic phonics basals. Linguistic phonemic programs. Language experience approaches. Computer software for assessment and instruction. Compensatory skills or methods to work around deficits?

“Copyright© Allyn & Bacon 2006” The elementary school years Behavioral Interventions Generally use the most basic principles of learning and are aimed at teaching social skills or changing problem behaviors. Behavioral contracts. Token reinforcement systems. structured presentation of stimuli reinforcement for correct responses self monitoring