Chapter 13: Leadership PSYC 352

Overview Leadership vs. management Major topics in leadership Theoretical approaches to leadership Points of convergence among approaches Cross-cultural leadership issues Diversity issues in leadership Concluding comments

Leadership vs. Management Mintzberg (1973) stated that leadership was merely a form or subset of management. Minzberg also suggested that managers had the following roles or functions: Figurehead Negotiator Liaison Monitor Disseminator Spokesman Entrepreneur Distribution handler Resource allocator

Leadership vs. Management Other researchers (Bennis & Nanus, 1985) suggest that there are differences between leaders and managers. “To manage means to bring about, to accomplish, to have charge of or responsibility for, to consider!” “Leading is influencing, guiding in direction, course, action, opinion.” Leaders are people who do the right thing.

Major Topics in Leadership Positional power: higher position = more power The leader: characteristics of leaders The led: characteristics of followers The influence process: coercion, manipulation, authority, persuasion Types of leader behavior: instrumental, supportive The situation: characteristics of situation Leader emergence versus leader effectiveness: how do leaders emerge, why are they effective?

Theoretical Approaches to Leadership The trait approach The behavioral approach The power and influence approach The situational approach Transformational leadership Charismatic leadership The implicit leadership theory Substitutes for leadership

1. The Trait Approach Thomas Carlyle (1907) commented that“the history of the world was the biography of great men” Focuses on: Personal attributes: high energy level, tolerance for stress, emotional maturity, integrity, self-confidence Motivation: need for power, achievement, affiliation Skills: technical, conceptual, interpersonal

2. The Behavioral Approach Emphasizes what leaders actually do on the job. 2 lines of research: Classification of leadership behaviors into categories Identification of behaviors related to leadership effectiveness

2. The Behavioral Approach How to Classify Behavior? Ohio State researchers (1950) Initiating structure (task-oriented) Consideration (people-oriented) Yukl, Wall, and Lepsinger (1990) 11 generic categories of leadership behavior Networking Supporting Managing conflict and team building Motivating Recognizing and rewarding Planning and organizing Problem solving Consulting and delegating Monitoring Informing Clarifying

3. Power and Influence Approach Emphasizes the use of power and influence exercised by a person within a group 3 major topics Power and leader effectiveness LMX theory Influence tactics

3. Power and Influence: Power and Leader Effectiveness 5 types of power (French & Raven, 1960): Reward Coercive Legitimate Expert Referent 3 outcomes of power: Commitment Compliance Resistance Empirical research

3. Power and Influence: Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Emphasizes the nature of the relationship between a leader and her/his subordinates Leaders differentiate subordinates by: Competence and skill Extent to which they can be trusted Motivation to assume greater responsibility

3. Power and Influence: Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Leaders develop relationships with each member of their work group (dyads) High quality relationships: member of “in-group;” greater responsibility, satisfaction Low quality relationships: member of “out-group;” less responsibility, satisfaction Psychological bases for exchange: Personal contribution Loyalty Affect Professional respect

3. Power and Influence: Influence Tactics 9 influencing tactics: Rational persuasion Inspirational appeals Consultation Ingratiation Personal appeals Exchange Coalition tactics Legitimating tactics Pressure Empirical research results

4. Situational Approach Emphasizes situational factors (e.g., nature of work performed, attitudes of subordinates) that promote the occurrence of leadership Path-goal theory: emphasizes the importance of telling followers what behaviors are needed in order to attain desired outcomes (House, 1971)

4. Situational Approach: Path-Goal Theory Leader must manifest 4 styles of behavior: Directive Supportive Participative Achievement oriented Leaders can influence subordinates’ perceptions of jobs by: Removing obstacles from path to desired goal Rewarding goal attainment Helping clarify paths to goals Conceptual limitations of theory

5. Transformational Leadership Leadership is the process of inspiring a group to pursue goals and attain results. 4 components: Idealized influence Inspirational motivation Intellectual stimulation Individualized consideration Transformational leadership is strongly related to work unit effectiveness; especially idealized influence (Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996)

6. Charismatic Leadership Follower perception that a leader possesses a divinely inspired gift (charisma) and is unique and larger than life, which inspires confidence and support (in followers) for the ideas and beliefs of the leader Behaviors typical of charismatic leaders: Impression management Articulation of appealing vision Communication of high expectations Expression of confidence Negative charismatics

7. Implicit Leadership Theory Leadership exists only in the mind of the follower. Individuals have an idea of what a leader should look like; they evaluate actual leaders based on this idea (Lord, Foti, & Phillips, 1982). Problems with measurement

8. Substitutes for Leadership Idea that there are other influences that can act in place of, or substitute for, formal leadership Four environmental sources that provide structure and direction (Pierce et al., 1984): The job itself Technology Work unit Leader

Points of Convergence among Approaches Importance of influencing and motivating Importance of maintaining effective relationships Importance of making decisions

Cross-Cultural Leadership Issues Japanese vs. American managers (Graen & Wakabayashi, 1994): Language differences Japanese perception that Americans have underdeveloped sense of obligation to company Americans do not understand Japanese tendency to not use punishment for insubordination Americans see lack of perks as loss of status Americans do not spend entire career in one company There is not a single conceptualization of leadership

Diversity Issues in Leadership Most research is based on white men Reasons for gender differences in leadership: Cultural Biases Gender differences in evaluation: Tendency for women to be evaluated lower More so when when their leadership style was stereotypically masculine More so when evaluators were women Women experience more barriers in leadership (Lyness & Thompson, 2000)

Conclusion New trends in leadership: Managing a diverse workforce Leaders are not only heroes, but “hero makers”