Chapter 11 Language Acquisition

11.1 First Language Acquisition It is no wonder that parents take such joy in observing their children ’ s first step in the acquisition of language. Consider the following sequence between a mother and her 3-month-old daughter: It is no wonder that parents take such joy in observing their children ’ s first step in the acquisition of language. Consider the following sequence between a mother and her 3-month-old daughter: ► Ann :( smiles) ► Mom: Oh, what a nice little smile! Yes, isn ’ t that nice? There. There ’ s a nice little smile. ► Ann :( burps) ► Mom: What a nice wind as well! Yes, that ’ s better, isn ’ t it? Yes. ► Ann :( vocalizes) ► Mom: Yes! There ’ s a nice noise.

► First language acquisition (L1 acquisition) is the term most commonly used to describe the process whereby children become speakers of their native language and languages. ► L1 acquisition is remarkable for the speed with which it takes place. The speed of acquisition has led to the belief that there is some “ innate ” proposition in the human infant to acquire language. This is usually called the “ language faculty ” with which each newborn child is endowed. ► There are basically two approaches to the question of first language acquisition: ① ① The behaviorist approach ① ② ② The innateness approach ②

The behaviorist approach ► Let ’ s see the following example: ► Suppose a baby is hungry, she babbles; she does not pronounce the right sound [milk] for the milk she wants; she gets corrected, she imitates the correct sound and gets understood; she gets the milk she wants. All the time the baby is observing and imitating the speech sound [milk]; she gets punished ( in the sense that she does not get the milk she wants) when she falls to produce the right sound [milk] and is rewarded when she hits on the correct sound.  say milk correctly 

► The child imitates the speech around it, using a process of trial and error. It is reinforced in these imitations, or discouraged from them, by the degree of success it achieves in communicating. This is a standard “ stimulus-response-imitation- reinforcement ” approach. ► The important thing is that they all believe that all the internal linguistic knowledge of the individual is the direct result of combining the linguistic event that the individual has observed. B.F. Skinner

The innateness approach ► The behaviorist hypothesis of first language acquisition has been strongly challenged from the 1960s onwards, especially under the influence of Noam Chomsky ’ s linguistic theories and cognitive psychology. The innateness hypothesis says that the ability to acquire a human language is part of the biologically innate equipment of the human being. It also claims that this built-in ability is linked in some manner to physiological maturation.

► For example: ► Children become competent speakers of a language at a comparatively early age before they are ready for other cognitively complex tasks such as learning mathematics, physics or chemistry. It has also been observed that children all over the world go through the same stages in language acquisition regardless of their linguistic environment. Children do not choose their first language; they can learn any language equally well as long as they are in the right linguistic environment. A Chinese child will pick up English as his first language if he is born in an English- speaking country. This probably shows that all human language share certain universal properties ( such as they all have nouns, verbs, and so on) and that human children are born with knowledge of these universal properties.

Stages of Acquiring the First Language ► A good deal of research on the acquisition of first language focuses on children ’ s early utterances. The establishment of stage of acquisition is probably the best-known outcome of research on children ’ s language. ► Several stages have been identified: 1. Pre-language stage(3~10 months) 2. The one-word or holophrastic stage(12~18 months) 3. The two-word stage(18~20 months) 4. Telegraphic speech(2~3years old)

11.2 Second Language Acquisition Q: Why we should master the second language? A: This has been a time of the “ global village ” and the “ World Wide Web ”, when communication between people has expanded well beyond their local speech communities. As never before, people have had to learn a second language so as to obtain an education or secure employment. At such a time, there is an obvious need to discover more about how need to discover more about how second languages are learned. second languages are learned.

Second Language Acquisition(L2 acquisition, SLA) can be defined as the way in which people learn a language other than their mother tongue, inside or outside of a classroom. Second Language Acquisition(L2 acquisition, SLA) can be defined as the way in which people learn a language other than their mother tongue, inside or outside of a classroom. Second : For one thing, here second can refer to any language that is learned in addition to the mother tongue. Thus, it can refer to the learning of a third or fourth language. Also, second is not used to contrast with foreign. Whether we are learning a language naturally as a result of living in a country where it is spoken, or learning it in a classroom through instruction, it is customary to speak generically of second language acquisition. Second : For one thing, here second can refer to any language that is learned in addition to the mother tongue. Thus, it can refer to the learning of a third or fourth language. Also, second is not used to contrast with foreign. Whether we are learning a language naturally as a result of living in a country where it is spoken, or learning it in a classroom through instruction, it is customary to speak generically of second language acquisition.

Contrastive Analysis ► To identify similarities and differences between particular native language(NLs) and target language (TLs), researchers conducted contrastive analysis (CA) from the 1940s and the 1960s. 1. The main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by interference from the first language. 2. These difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis. 3. Teaching materials can make use of contrastive analysis to reduce the effects of mother tongue interference

Error Analysis ► An error refers to the production of incorrect forms in speech and writing by a nonnative speaker of second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of that target language. ► For example: When a Chinese learner of English says “I not go”(=I will not go) because the equivalent sentence in Chinese is wo bu qu( 我不去 ). When a Chinese learner of English says “I not go”(=I will not go) because the equivalent sentence in Chinese is wo bu qu( 我不去 ).

► Error analysis(EA) refers to the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners. It developed as a branch of applied linguistics in the 1960s, and achieved considerable popularity in the 1970s. ► It may be carried out in order to 1. Identify strategies which learners use in language learning; 2. Try to identify the causes of learner errors; 3. Obtain information on common difficulties in language learning, as an aid to teaching or in the preparation of teaching materials.

► Error analysis was therefore offered as an alternative to contrastive analysis. Attempts were made to develop classifications for different types of errors on the basis of the different processes that were assumed to account for them. A basic distinction was drawn between intralingual and interlingual errors. Intralingual errors Interlingual errors He is comes. He comes from China, Beijing. result from faulty or partial learning of the target language caused by the learner ’ s native language (language transfer )

Interlanguage ► For example: The Spanish speaker who says in English “She name is Mary” is producing a form which is not used by adult speakers of English, does not occur in English L1 acquisition by children, and is not found in Spanish either. ► Evidence of this sort suggests that there is some in-between system while acquiring L2 which certainly contains aspects of both L1 and L2, but which is an inherently variable system with rules of its own. This system is called an interlanguage and is now considered to be the basis of all L2 production.

11.3 Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition SLA theories acknowledge that there are some individual differences in L2 acquisition, especially some psychological dimensions of differences. Here we will focus on four major dimensions--- language aptitude, cognitive style, personality traits and learning strategies. SLA theories acknowledge that there are some individual differences in L2 acquisition, especially some psychological dimensions of differences. Here we will focus on four major dimensions--- language aptitude, cognitive style, personality traits and learning strategies.

Language aptitude ► Language Aptitude was known as that people differ in the extent to which they possess a natural ability for learning an L2, which is thought to be a combination of various abilities. ► According to Carroll’s Modern Language Aptitude (MLAT), the components of language aptitude are: 1.Phonemic coding ability;2.Grammatical sensitivity;3. Inductive language learning ability ;4.Rote learning ability ► Learners who score highly on language aptitude tests typically learn rapidly and achieve higher level of L2 proficiency than learners who obtain low scores.

Cognitive style: field dependence and field independence ► Field dependence is measured by asking learners to look at complex patterns and identify a number of simple geometric figures that are hidden within them. The purpose is to see whether they are able to break up what they see (i.e. the whole) into parts and keep these parts separate from the whole. ► The characteristics of field dependent language learners are that they accept the L2 information exactly as it is presented to them by the teacher. They do not try to analyze or think about it themselves. They are very reliant on in their L2 learning. They tend to be seen as outgoing are interested in others and so would be expected to develop good interpersonal communication skills in the L2.

► Field independent learners, on the other hand, do not assume that the L2 information that they are given is necessarily correct. They tend to analyze it and think about it themselves to determine whether it is correct or not. They have a strong sense of personal identify and often seem insensitive to and distant from other people. They might, therefore, be expected to be less interested in developing communication skills in the L2. ► Field independence is typical of learners who think about the input that they get. They would develop a broader and deeper understanding of the structure of the language than those who take all L2 input at face value. Therefore, they have better performances on structure tests.

Personality traits Introversion VS Extroversion The relationship between language proficiency and extroversion seems to be true when assessing proficiency and extroversion seems to be true when assessing proficiency at using the language, but not when assessing knowledge of the language. The relationship between language proficiency and extroversion seems to be true when assessing proficiency and extroversion seems to be true when assessing proficiency at using the language, but not when assessing knowledge of the language.

Learning strategies ► Language aptitude, cognitive style, and personality traits are the general factors that affect the rate and level of L2 achievement. Learning strategies are the particular approaches or techniques that learners use to try to learn an L2. ► Three major types of learning strategies have been identified: 1. Cognitive strategies, 2. Metacognitive strategies, 3. Social/affective strategies.

► Cognitive strategies refer to the steps or operations used in problem solving that need direct analysis, transformation or synthesis of learning materials. ► Metacognitive strategies make use of knowledge about cognitive processes and constitute attempts to regulate language learning by means of planning, monitoring and evaluating. ► Social/affective strategies concern the ways in which learners choose to interact with other learners and native speakers.

► Good language learners are also very active, show awareness of the learning process and their own learning styles and, above all, are flexible and appropriate in their use of learning strategies. strategies that involve formal practice(e.g. rehearsing a new word) contribute to the development of linguistic competence while strategies involving functional practice(e.g. seeking out native speakers to talk to) aid the development of communicative skills. ► The study of learning strategies is of potential value to language teachers. If strategies that are crucial for learning can be identified, it may prove possible to train students to use them. In the next section we will examine this idea in a broader context when we discuss the role of instruction in L2 acquisition.

11.4 Instruction and L2 Acquisition One of the goals SLA is to improve language teaching. Here we will consider three branches of this research. One of the goals SLA is to improve language teaching. Here we will consider three branches of this research. The first concerns whether teaching learners grammar has any influence on their interlanguage development. Do learners learn the structures they are taught? The first concerns whether teaching learners grammar has any influence on their interlanguage development. Do learners learn the structures they are taught? The second draws on the research into individual learner differences. Do learners learn better if the kind of instruction they receive matches their preferred ways of learning an L2? The second draws on the research into individual learner differences. Do learners learn better if the kind of instruction they receive matches their preferred ways of learning an L2? The third branch looks at the training of strategies used by “ good language learners ”. The third branch looks at the training of strategies used by “ good language learners ”.

Form-focused instruction ► Instruction which draws attention to the forms and structures of the language within the context of communicative interaction is called form-focused instruction. ► The grammar-translation method and the audiolingual method both attempt to teach learners grammar, and their only difference is how this is to be fulfilled. More recently, however, language pedagogy has emphasized the need to provide learners with real communicative experiences. Communicative language teaching is based on the assumption that learners do not need to be taught grammar before they can communicate but will acquire it naturally as part of the learning process.

Learner-instruction matching ► Learner-instruction matching involves an attempt to ensure that the teaching style is suited to the learner. It is based on the assumption that learners have different learning styles and that they will learn most effectively if the instruction matches their particular learning styles. ► Educational research which has investigated the effects of such instruction is sometimes referred to as aptitude-treatment interaction (ATI).

Strategy Training ► Most of the research on strategy training or learner training has concentrated on vocabulary learning. Training students to use strategies that concern different ways of making associations with target words has generally proved successful. ► For example, the key word method requires learners to form two kinds of associations. First, learners associate the target word with a word which is the same or similar to an L1 word, e.g. the Japanese word “ohio”, meaning “morning”, might be associated with “Ohio”, a state in the United States. Second, the L1 word is linked to a mental image that incorporates the meaning of the target word, e.g. the learner thinks of a very cold morning in winter in Ohio. It has been shown that these associations can help to memorize the target word.

The idea of strategy training is attractive because it provides a way helping learners to become autonomous, that is, of enabling them to take responsibility for their own learning. The idea of strategy training is attractive because it provides a way helping learners to become autonomous, that is, of enabling them to take responsibility for their own learning.