管理變革 Prentice Hall Chapter 18 Led by globalization and technological advances, managers of almost every organization are feeling intense competitive pressures. Furthermore, today’s managers rarely operate in stable, predictable environments. For example, Bill Gates (Microsoft) and Andrew Grove (Intel) see new competitors coming from every direction. But, they have turned their paranoia into corporate cultures that thrive on change. Management guru Tom Peters sums up the world of chaotic change: “Today’s winners, and especially tomorrow’s, will have a penchant for disruption, a love of disorder—and even a willingness to throw baby parts (e.g., cherished core competencies) out with the bath water ... again and again.” Prentice Hall Chapter 18

學習目標 研讀個人或組織抗拒變革的原因 描述力場分析 比較一階與二階變革 了解降低變革抗拒的策略 列出降低變革抗拒的戰術 Prentice Hall Chapter 18

學習目標 描述管理者可以改變的事 定義組織發展 指出降低員工壓力的方法 管理如何鼓勵創新 描述學習型組織 Prentice Hall Chapter 18

抗拒變革 個人 習慣 經濟因素 保障 對未知的恐懼 選擇性的 資訊處理 Prentice Hall Chapter 18 Organizations and their members resist change. In a sense, their resistance can be positive. It provides a degree of stability and predictability, and it can be a source of functional conflict. But, resistance also hinders progress and adaptation. Often, organizations that have experienced lengthy periods of success are particularly resistant to change. Organizational resistance to change can take several forms: overt, implicit, immediate, or deferred. The following summarizes five reasons why individuals may resist change. • Habit. To cope with the complexities of day-to-day living, we rely on habits or programmed responses. When confronted with changes, this tendency to respond in habitual ways hinders change. • Security. People with a high need for security resist change because it threatens them. • Economic Factors. Another source of individual resistance is fear that changes will lower income. • Fear of the Unknown. Changes substitute ambiguity and uncertainty for the stable and familiar. • Selective Information Processing. Individuals shape their world through their perceptions. Once they have created this world, it is resistant to change. So, individuals selectively process information in order to maintain their perceptions. 對未知的恐懼 選擇性的 資訊處理 Prentice Hall Chapter 18

抗拒變革 組織 結構慣性 變革的焦點有限 群體慣性 既有資源的分配 受到威脅 既有的權力關係 受到威脅 對專業的威脅 Six sources of resistance have been identified. • Structural Inertia. Organizations have built-in stability mechanisms: for instance, the selection process, training, socialization, job descriptions, rules, and procedures. When an organization faces change, structural inertia acts as a counterbalance to sustain stability. • Limited Focus of Change. Because organizations consist of interdependent subsystems, one cannot be changed without affecting the others. So, the larger system nullifies limited subsystem changes. • Group Inertia. Even if individuals want to change, group norms can constrain them. • Threat to Expertise. The expertise of specialized groups may be threatened by organizational change. • Threat to Established Power Relationships. Any redistribution of decision-making authority can threaten long-established power relationships within the organization. • Threat to Established Resource Allocations. Those that benefit the most from the current allocation of resources are often the most threatened by changes that may affect future allocations. 既有資源的分配 受到威脅 既有的權力關係 受到威脅 對專業的威脅 Prentice Hall Chapter 18

三階段的變革模式 希望達成 的狀態 現狀 抑制力量 驅動力量 時間 Prentice Hall Chapter 18 Successful change in organizations follows three steps: unfreezing the status quo, movement to a new state, and refreezing the new change to make it permanent. Moreover, successful change requires force-field analysis: that is, analyzing the forces that are driving change and those restraining it so that the former can be increased and the latter reduced. The status quo can be considered an equilibrium state. To move from this state (to overcome individual and organizational resistance) unfreezing must occur. It can be done in three ways. The driving forces, which direct behavior away from the status quo, can be increased. The restraining forces, which hinder movement from the existing equilibrium, can be decreased. The first two approaches can be combined. 驅動力量 時間 Prentice Hall Chapter 18

計劃性變革的類型 二階變革 一階變革 Prentice Hall Chapter 18 A linear change that implies no fundamental shifts in organizational assumptions, first-order change seeks minor improvements while “staying the course.” If a company faces relatively benign competitive conditions, making incremental changes can make sense. However, in a dynamic environment, managers who pursue first-order changes are doing the organizational equivalent of “rearranging the deck chairs on the Titanic.” They appear to be doing something when, in reality, they not dealing with the real problems. In contrast, second-order change is multidimensional, multilevel, discontinuous radical change that involves reframing assumptions about the organization and the world in which it operates. Prentice Hall Chapter 18

評估變革的時機 對於變革的解讀 管理者的態度 近來的歷史 溝通的模式 組織文化 Prentice Hall Chapter 18 Research has identified seventeen key elements to successful change. These elements can be grouped under the following headings: management, recent history, organization culture, and communication patterns. The more affirmative answers a manager can give to the following questions, the greater the likelihood that change efforts will succeed. Management. Is the sponsor of change high up enough to have power to effectively deal with resistance? Is day-to-day leadership supportive to the change and committed to it? Is there a strong sense of urgency from senior management about the need for change, and is it shared by the rest of the organization? Does management have a clear vision of how the future will look different from the present? Are functional managers willing to sacrifice their personal self-interest for the good of the organization as a whole? Does management pride itself on closely monitoring changes and actions taken by competitors? Recent history. Are there objective measures in place to evaluate the change effort, and are reward systems explicitly designed to reinforce them? Is the specific change effort consistent with other changes going on within the organization? Has the organization successfully implemented major changes recently? Organization climate. Is the importance of the customer and a knowledge of customer needs well accepted by everyone in the workforce? Are decisions made quickly, taking into account a wide variety of suggestions? Are managers and employees rewarded for risk taking, innovation, and new solutions? Communication patterns. Is the structure of the organization flexible? Are communication channels open both downward and upward? Is the organization’s hierarchy relatively flat? Are employee satisfaction and trust in management high? Is there a high degree of cross-boundary interaction and inter-unit cooperation? 溝通的模式 組織文化 Prentice Hall Chapter 18

減少抗拒的策略 組織內部的查核 推動適合組織的變革 顯示變革的重要性 按部就班的進行變革 選擇抗拒最少的路徑 了解組織所能接受的變革程度 Six guidelines can prepare an organization for change. 1. Conduct an organizational identity audit before undertaking any major change. Include all departments and levels affected by the change, and focus on members’ beliefs about the organization. 2. Tailor the change to fit the organization. Use the audit to identify concerns and identities within the organization. 3. Present the change as significant while tying it to valued aspects of organizational identity. Using visionary leadership techniques will help to convince employees that change is needed. 4. Introduce change in a series of mid-range steps. Comprehensive changes are threatening. And each successful step increases momentum. 5. Take the path of least resistance. Select those units in which the probability that change will be readily accepted is the highest. 6. Know how much change your organization can handle. There is an upper limit to how much change is acceptable. Use this limit to constrain the amount of change that is introduced at any given time. Prentice Hall Chapter 18

減少抗拒的技巧 教育與溝通 參與 協商 支持 操控與推選 代表參與 強迫 Prentice Hall Chapter 18 Six tactics can be used by change agents to deal with resistance. 1. Education and communication can help employees to see the logic of change. 2. Participation encourages individuals to support changes that they decided upon. 3. Facilitation and support can be used to reduce resistance. 4. Negotiation means exchanging something of value for lessening resistance. 5. Manipulation involves covert influence attempts; cooptation uses participation and manipulation. 6. Coercion is the application of direct threats or force on the resisters. 操控與推選 代表參與 強迫 Prentice Hall Chapter 18

變革的政治化 內部變革的 驅動者 內部抗拒變革 的力量 Prentice Hall Chapter 18 Since change threatens the status quo, it inherently implies political activity. Internal change agents are typically managers high in the organization who have a lot to lose from change. The impetus for change is most likely to come from individuals who are new to the organization (with less invested in the status quo) and from executives slightly removed from the main power structure. If long-time power holders are forced to introduce change, they will tend to implement first-order changes. Radical change is too threatening. The intensity and duration of organizational power struggles will determine, to a large degree, the speed and quality of change. Since long-time career executives will be a source of resistance, boards of directors who want second-order change implemented in the organization will often bring in leadership from the outside. All change agents should proceed with caution. They should assess how much support they have from top management and consider who will have a vested interest in the change. Winning the support of these parties will be crucial to the success or failure of any change effort. Prentice Hall Chapter 18

管理者可以 進行什麼樣 的變革? 結構 文化 科技 實體擺設 人員 Prentice Hall Chapter 18 Changing Structure. In response to change, managers may need to modify the organization’s structure. The structure is how tasks are formally divided, grouped, and coordinated. Managers can alter one or more of the key elements in an organization’s design. Management can also modify structural design. Changing Culture. Changing an organization’s structure or technology is much easier than changing its culture. The following conditions are conducive to cultural changes: a dramatic crisis, new top leadership, a fairly new or small organization, and a weak dominant culture. Changing Technology. Today, major technological changes usually involve the introduction of new tools, equipment, or methods; automation; or computerization. Competitive factors or innovations within an industry often require management to introduce new equipment, tools, or operating methods. Automation replaces people with machines. The most visible change in recent years has been expanding computerization. Changing the Physical Setting. Several elements should be considered when management designs work space: work demands, social needs, and formal interaction requirements. Changes in the physical setting can expedite or hinder day-to-day work activities and performance. Changing People. By using communication, decision making, and problem solving, management or change agents can influence the attitudes and behaviors of organizational members. 人員 Prentice Hall Chapter 18

進行人員變革的技巧 組織發展 調查回饋 群體間的發展 團隊建立 Prentice Hall Chapter 18 Organizational Development. This term refers to a collection of techniques for understanding, changing, and developing workforce effectiveness: survey feedback, team building, and intergroup development. Survey Feedback. Management can use the survey feedback approach to assess the attitudes of organizational members in order to identify and address the discrepancies among their perceptions. Team Building. The following team-building activities promote trust and openness between team members: goal setting, interpersonal development, role analysis, and team process analysis. Intergroup Development. This technique can change attitudes, stereotypes, and perceptions that groups have of each other. One method emphasizes problem solving. Once problems have been identified, team members can move to the integration phase of working together to develop solutions to improve intergroup relations. Prentice Hall Chapter 18

管理變革的當代議題 國家文化 組織再造 Prentice Hall Chapter 18 Managing change needs to reflect national culture. Do people believe change is possible? Given a culture in which people believe that they can dominate their environment, individuals will view change proactively. If change is possible, how long will it take? Cultures that focus on the long term will demonstrate considerable patience during change, but those that focus on the short term will expect quick improvements. Is resistance to change greater in some cultures than others? Resistance will be influenced by a society’s reliance on tradition. Does culture influence the implementation of change? High power distance cultures value change that is implemented by top management, while low power distance cultures value democratic methods. Reengineering involves second-order change. While it has been applied to tens of thousands of organizations in the United States and Europe, many of these efforts have fallen short of original expectations. In fact, many companies began the reengineering process only to abandon it “with little or no positive result.” Reengineering is a high-risk activity that often fails because of its implications for managers and employees alike. Such drastic change can threaten everyone in the organization; so, reengineering will be resisted. Two factors can get employees to accept change: participation and team building. Prentice Hall Chapter 18

減少員工的壓力 目標設立 時間管理 福利方案 工作重新設計 組織溝通 員工參與 社會支持網絡 Prentice Hall Today’s workers take on larger work loads, work longer hours, have fewer resources, confront ambiguity daily, and have less job security. These factors contribute to employee stress. Not all sources of stress can be controlled by management: for instance, high-strung employees or workers with off-the-job pressures. However, certain jobs are more stressful than others, and individuals vary in their response to stress situations. Therefore, selection and placement decisions must consider these factors. The use of goals can reduce employee frustration, job uncertainty, and stress. Poor use of time can cause stress, so management should provide time-management training. Redesigning jobs to give employees more responsibility, more meaningful work, and increased feedback can reduce stress. Job stress often occurs because employees feel uncertain about goals, expectations, and how they will be evaluated. So, management should increase employee involvement in decision making. Helping employees expand their social support networks can reduce tension. Increasing formal organizational communication with employees lessens ambiguity and reduces stress. Wellness programs supported by the organization focus on the employee’s total physical and mental condition. 員工參與 社會支持網絡 Prentice Hall Chapter 18

處理 組織精簡 採用正確的程序 讓人員抒發感受 重新塑造 組織系統 打破對於組織 的依賴 Prentice Hall Chapter 18 For every “victim” who is laid off, there are probably five to ten “survivors.” While layoff victims have access to outplacement services, psychological counseling, support groups, severance pay, and extended benefit programs, little has been done for those who have been left behind to maintain or revitalize an organization. Evidence shows that both victims and survivors experience feelings of anxiety, frustration, and loss. But layoff victims get to start over with a clean slate. This is not true for survivors. Layoff-survivor sickness (a new syndrome) is a set of attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors that manifests itself on the job: for example, job insecurity, depression, stress, reduced risk taking, and distrust of management. A four-step approach has been proposed for dealing with layoff-survivor sickness. 1. Get the process right. Characteristics include making the cuts quickly, providing abundant information, being honest in communications, and allowing employees to participate. 2. Let people grieve to deal with repressed feelings and emotions. Survivors of layoffs must go through a grieving process, similar to the one after a death in the family. Group counseling is an effective means of bringing the emotions of survivors to the surface. 3. Break the chain of organizational dependence. Survivors must be helped to regain their feelings of self-control and self-esteem. Rather than treating the sickness, as in steps one and two, this step offers the possibility of preventing the sickness in the first place by moving workers from organizational dependency to self-directed careers. 4. Reshape the organization’s systems to lessen dependency-creating processes. This step seeks to help employees immunize themselves against survivor sickness. Organizations in the past did a lot to create co-dependency: seniority systems, promotion from within, and long-term career planning. Today, organizations must behave differently; for instance, shaping a new culture of employee independence, providing transferable benefit plans and tenure-free recognition systems, downplaying differences between full-time and part-time workers, facilitating open communication, and promoting interorganizational mobility. Prentice Hall Chapter 18

建立創新型組織 創新的來源 結構性變數 文化變數 Prentice Hall Chapter 18 Innovation stimulates growth, but how do organizations become innovative? The standard toward which many organizations strive has been set by 3M Company. While there is no guaranteed formula, certain structural, cultural, and human resource characteristics are common to innovative organizations. Before, discussing them, let’s define innovation. Whereas change refers to making things different, innovation refers to a new idea applied to initiating or improving a product, process, or service. All innovations involve change, but not all changes are innovative. Structural variables can promote innovation. A review of the relationship between structure and innovation reveals that (1) organic structures positively influence innovation, (2) long tenure in management is associated with innovation, (3) innovation is nurtured where resources are abundant, and (4) inter-unit communication is high in innovative companies. Organizations that promote innovation tend to have similar cultures. They encourage experimentation, reward both successes and failures, and celebrate mistakes. Innovative organizations share the following human resource practices: training and developing members, offering high job security, and encouraging change agents. 結構性變數 文化變數 Prentice Hall Chapter 18

何謂學習型組織? 定義 優勢 特性 Prentice Hall Chapter 18 A learning organization is one that has developed the continuous capacity to adapt and change. Most organizations engage in single-loop learning: that is, detecting and correcting errors by using past routines and present policies. In contrast, learning organizations use double-loop learning: that is, detecting errors and correcting them in ways that modify the organization’s objectives, policies, and standard routines. Proponents believe that the learning organization can remedy the following three basic problems in traditional organizations. Fragmentation is based on specialization which creates “walls” that separate different functions into independent and often warring fiefdoms. Stressing competition can hinder collaboration. Reactiveness misdirects management’s attention to solving problems rather than generating new ideas. The following are characteristics of a learning organization: 1. Everyone agrees to a shared vision. 2. People discard old ways of thinking and standard routines. 3. Members see that organizational processes and activities are interrelated. 4. People communicate openly across horizontal and vertical boundaries. 5. Employees sublimate departmental/personal interests for the shared vision. The learning organization is a paradigm built on contemporary management concepts. No company has successfully achieved all the characteristics. Prentice Hall Chapter 18

管理學習 建立策略 重新設計 組織結構 重新塑造 組織文化 Prentice Hall Chapter 18 What can managers do to make their firms learning organizations? They can establish a strategy by committing to change, innovation, and continuous improvement. Managers can also redesign the organization’s structure: for instance, flattening hierarchies, combining departments, and increasing the use of cross-functional teams. Moreover, management can reshape the organization’s culture through what they say and do. Prentice Hall Chapter 18