1 Social process theories Psychological & sociological

2 Social process n Criminality is a function of individual socialization and the social psychological interactions people have with the various institutions and processes of society n Socialization: process by which an individual’s behavior is shaped in conforming with the standards of the culture

3 Social process (cont) n Agents of socialization n Family n School n Peers n Media n Authorities--employers, CJS n If these relationships positive, law- abiding

4 The Family & Crime Characteristics of families n A variety of studies have been done n Common patterns n Two-way street: easy babies have less maladjustment than difficult babies n 1. Inconsistent discipline (not to be confused with being lenient-- ”woodshed” theory is too simplistic) n Consider this from a learning theory standpoint

5 Family characteristics n 2. Poor supervision n 3. High levels of family conflict, escalation n 4. Parental deviance, such as parental substance abuse, parental criminality (often in the past) and maternal depression n 5. Large family size (supervision issue) n 6. Poor living conditions

6 Family characteristics n 7. Abuse and neglect n Neglect a bigger problem n Studies surveying delinquents indicate higher rates (about 1/3) as compared to the general population n A New York study found that about ½ of families with abuse had a child who went to juvenile court

7 Characteristics of families n 8. Broken homes n Early studies showed a relationship, later studies have not been definitive n In the earlier studies, one parent homes less common n Stigma and difficulty of obtaining a divorce n Stigma attached to unmarried mothers

8 Characteristics of families n This picture has changed. Single parent homes doubled in 30 years. n It is probably not surprising that more recent studies would have different results n Problems with studies: records do not tell about home dynamics, such as level of conflict.

9 Characteristics of families n Single parent homes more at risk for delinquency, however: n Is this due to poverty, which is more likely in single parent homes? n There is some evidence that children are more likely to be processed as delinquents if they come from a single parent home

10 Characteristics n The major variable appears to be amount of supervision. Families in which there is adequate supervision, whether the mother is helped by other relatives, paid caretakers, etc..., are not at high risk for delinquency. n This is also the case for very young mothers, whose children are at risk.

11 Major factors n Age n Educational level n Financial status n Social capital

12 Woodlawn study n This study was done in the Woodlawn area of Chicago (high crime area) n Children categorized as aggressive or nonaggressive. Aggressive children in both one and two parent homes more likely to be delinquent. With non- aggressive, children in single homes more at risk than in two parent homes.

13 Woodlawn n Suggest that both individual and family factors play a role, each adding to possible risk or non-risk.

14 Attachment n Final family characteristic predictive of delinquency: n 9. Attachment--lack of a warm, supportive parent-child relationship n Attachment: a strong affectional tie n Babies do not show an obvious preference for a particular adult during the first few months of life

15 Attachment (cont) n At around 4-5 months, begin to distinguish and exhibit “stranger anxiety” n Typically develop a preference, usually for one person (usually the mother) n Prefers that person to all others, seeks comfort, etc... n Must happen within the first two years

16 Attachment (cont) n Children who do not form a strong attachment typically have problems, including school difficulties, lack of empathy for others, and dysfunctional relationships n In some cases there may even be failure to thrive n Harlow’s monkeys

17 Attachment (cont.) n Factors which hinder attachment/ bonding n Unattractiveness, illness, irritable baby, handicaps, chronic stress, chaotic environment n Protective factors n Being attractive, healthy, an “easy” baby, stable environment

18 Attachment (cont.) n When child becomes attached, prefers that person to all others, comforted by presence, seeks approval n Mother is also attached to the child n Adaptive from an evolutionary standpoint--adult must gain something, or would not take care of the child

19 Attachment (cont) n Bond affects cognitive development--the thinking is that the adult gives the child a secure base from which to explore n Bond affects social competence later n From a learning theory standpoint, love and approval play a significant role in teaching behaviors.

20 Attachment (cont) n If there is not a bond, then the child will not care about love and approval from the parent, and the parent will be less able to control the child. In adolescence, once the child is bigger and stronger, a parent can control only through approval/disapproval.

21 Schools n Offenders are more likely to have poor academic achievement n Fail more grades n Truant or drop out n Low motivation n Feel alienated, not involved in school activities

22 Family environment Restrictive Permissive Restrictive Permissive Warmth Submissive Active Compliant Outgoing Compliant Outgoing Polite Creative Polite Creative Hostility Withdrawn Delinquent Neurotic Aggressive Neurotic Aggressive

23 Schools (continued) n Factors that lower delinquency n Fair but firm rules in a nurturing environment n A solid nucleus of motivated students n Classroom size, condition of buildings, student-teacher ratio not predictive alone

24 Differential association n Behavior is learned in interaction with other persons n Principal part of the learning occurs in personal groups, such as family or friends. n Learning criminal behavior includes learning techniques, rationalizations and attitudes

25 Differential association (cont) n A person becomes criminal when he perceives more favorable to unfavorable consequences to violating the law n and, when he has more rationalizations favorable to violating the law than to obeying the law

26 Differential association (cont) n Social support for criminality can overcome social controls. This social support comes from associating with criminal peers n Such associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity n As frequency increases, more likely

27 DA (continued) n Duration: longer the association, more likely n Priority: age when one first encounters criminal peers--earlier, more likely n Intensity: importance and prestige given to the people that are learned from

28 Research on DA n Criminal offenders do tend to have criminal friends “started running with the wrong crowd” n However, which came first--association which led to crime, or criminal tendencies which led to associations with criminal peers (birds of a feather flocking together)

29 DA (cont) n Explains onset of criminality n Explains presence of crime in all segments of society, explains white collar crime n explains why some people in high crime areas refrain from crime n Does not explain desistance

30 Neutralization theory n Rationalizations which overcome society’s norms n Denial of responsibility: I didn’t mean to do it n Denial of injury: I didn’t really hurt anybody (insurance will pay for it, etc...) n Denial of victim: They had it coming to them

31 Neutralization (cont) n condemnation of others: everyone is picking on me. Shift blame to others-- corrupt CJS, etc... n Appeal to higher loyalties, i.e.., I did it for the group

32 Social control (Hirschi) n All people have the potential to violate the law n Modern society presents many opportunities for illegal activity n Why to people obey the law?

33 Social control n The stronger the social bond to society, less likely the person is to be delinquent n Weaker the bond, delinquency likely n Four components of the social bond n 1. attachment 2. commitment n 3. involvement 4. belief

34 Social control n Attachment: sensitivity and interest in others, feelings of affection, respect to conventional (law-abiding) people n Time, energy and efforts expended in conventional goals. n Involvement: in conventional activities-- school, recreation, family n Belief: share common moral beliefs

35 Research on social control n Hirschi asked high school students questions concerning: n feelings of affection and respect for parents, teachers, peers, etc. n Plans for the future (commitment) n Their activities n Beliefs about society, right & wrong n Self reported delinquency, arrests

36 Social control (cont) n Youths strongly attached to parents and peers, less likely to be delinquent n Delinquents: weak and distant relationships (not what Sutherland would expect) n Commitment to conventional goals, education, jobs, etc..., less likely to be delinquent

37 Social control (cont) n Nondelinquents spent more time in conventional activities, such as homework, school activities, sports, family and community recreation, etc.. n Delinquents--more time smoking, drinking, riding around in cars, began these behaviors younger n No differences in terms of beliefs

38 Social control (cont) n Good empirical research n Which comes first: does a weak bond lead to delinquency, or do delinquent acts lead to weakened bonds? n Implications

39 Labelling theory n “Looking-glass” self: part of the way we perceive ourselves is based on the perceptions of others n Research support n Primary deviance: deviance that is common, that occurs but has not yet been labelled

40 Labelling (cont) n Secondary deviance: deviance that is the result of labelling, a self-fulfilling prophecy primary deviance ceremonies labelling secondary deviance continuation of the behavior

41 Labelling n Implications: avoid labelling when possible n Advocated: diversion, deinstitutionalization, due process