What are the trade-offs in moving between types of structure? What are the “forces” that govern which is in operation? What are the barriers to moving between structures? Multi-level selection  “higher entities” How do they emerge? What can each do? What problems does each solve? What problems does each need to solve to maintain itself? Autonomy Freedom of action of elements Community voluntary association cooperation, “an interaction space” “flat” topology Hierarchy Recursive structure: groups of groups of groups.. of individuals Compositional or functional hierarchy power relationships Maintains components in particular structural relationships

Distinguishing properties Decision rights or power of entities. Relationships between entities Intents / utility / goals. Homogeneity and heterogeneity of entities  allows specialisation Architecture (flat / network / tree). Defining scale, scope, level; system and context is important for clarity What are the correlations between these?

Utility Functions: Cui bono? To address "cui bono" we have to identify all the "entities" that might be candidates for benefit. To qualify as an entity in the first place we propose: –continuity of existence. –ability to act (as an entity). –implicit "interest" against which potential "benefit" could be assessed –?

Cui bono? Auto- nomy  primary self-interest = continuing to exist and/or replicate.  secondary self-interest = intents (proxies) adopted by entity. Hier- archy (a) Power / coercion:  dominated by interest of power clique  subordinates’ interests are subjugated. (b) Compositional / functional  dominated by interest of effectiveness in dealing with ‘problem’.  enforced by modification of individual payoffs Com- munity  Interest of the collective springs from (aligned, overlapping) individual interest

To From AutonomyHierarchyCommunity Auto- nomy  Lack of trust in others.  Isolation.  Poor communication.  Rewards for changing are not enough.  Protection (for weaker individuals)  Complex tasks require decomposition and sequencing.  Regulate / reduce conflicts between individuals.  Desire for power and influence (for stronger individuals)  Control – coercion and/or incentives, modifies individual payoffs  Trade / exchange -> improved outcomes for each.  Protection (common threat).  Individuals are sufficiently motivated by community rewards to group together.  Cooperation to solve common problems through specialisation, coordination.  Can have agreements (motivated by iterative opportunities for future benefits from agreements). Hier- archy  Individual rewards outweigh collective rewards.  Loss of trust in leadership  no longer need for protection.  Enforcement of power – defectors punished  Task too large scale (eg. space program) to switch.  No better alternative for complex task  Loss of power structures.  Task no longer requires hierarchy  Revolution: loss of power in hierarchy outweighs benefits of protection. Com- munity  Individual rewards greater than collective rewards.  Loss of confidence in community  Benefit/cost insufficient to maintain cohesion.  Insufficient immediate rewards to motivate individuals for required tasks for community  Problems too complex.  Community interactions require regulation to deliver benefits  Insufficient power to move to hierarchy.  Specialisation lock-in  can’t go back to autonomy.  mechanism to prevent defection (eg meiosis)

How does specialisation (versus multifunctionality) arise?  Autonomy: niche exploitation.  Communities: comparative advantage in trade and exchange.  Hierarchies: –specialisation for effectiveness from task perspective –efficiency of exploitation of the organisation by power elite

Why do hierarchies emerge? To permit centralised control. To manage resources efficiently. To manage interactions. To undertake more complex tasks. To undertake larger scale tasks. ? To undertake larger scale tasks. To enhance individual benefits ? Why do communities emerge?

Where does a market sit? Autonomy? –traders acting partly independently. Community? –traders interacting in a market place (eg. watching pricing, working out what to trade in) Hierarchy? –governance of market place. Multiple structures may exist at different scales and perspectives: –Companies (interactions across the hierarchy) –Wolves have a hierarchical social structure but hunt as a community, although the hunt is initiated through the hierarchy.

A interacting with B: Trade Space A does all the changing B doesn’t change B does all the changing A doesn’t change Who changes Who Benefits From The changes A gets all the benefit B gets no benefit B gets all the benefit A gets no benefit independence A and B Change equally A and B Benefit equally Equal cooperation exploitation B less ‘mature’? A more competent A less ‘mature’? B more competent What can change:  Values  Intents  Strategies  Plans  Tasks  Capabilities What is ‘benefit’? Enhanced outcome against one’s:  Values  Intents  Strategies  Plans  Tasks ends ways means