General Slides for SOC120 Fall 2007 Week 8 (Study Guide edited 3/09/10) Class Outline Chapt Study Guide

Thoughts for Critical Thinkers Credibility What does a critical thinker think/do? “Can You Rely On Social Security“

Most People believe no! 1994 survey found more young people believing in UFO’s then in the possibility they would get anything back from Social Security taxes The Government retirement fund most experts agree will become increasingly less able to meet the needs of the growing retirement population unless changes are made. What changes, “just a little from each” 1.Remove ceiling (currently no SS tax above $87,000 year) and set 1.5% rate for this income above $87,000). 2.Raise retirement age raise age of full benefits 1 year from 65 to 68 (from current raise to 67 by 2027) 3.Cut Benefits by changing calculation of benefits from inflation “wage inflation” to “price inflation”. Above assumes the Trust Fund won’t be raided for other uses such as cutting taxes for the wealthy—which has been done Andrew Tobias Sunday August 31, 2003 Parade Magazine Note: Social Security was not designed as a retirement program but as an insurance program for those with little are no retirement, disability, and for children survivors. It is pretty difficult to live on Social Security alone [I get $1700 month after 40 years]. The idea was SS was for an emergency those who had for some reason been unable to create a retirement through work or savings and for children disabled and those under 21 whose parents were disabled or died.children

What does a Critical Thinker do? Check the source Find out who is: Andrew Tobias Do other sources agree with his statements Then make a decision Using your web search skills evaluate the above and make a decision One additional possibility: Needs assessment for receiving SS benefits

Thoughts for Critical Thinkers The Media has a liberal bias Credibility What does a critical thinker think/do? GoreBush Positive 13% 24% Neutral 31% 27% Negative 56% 49% Total 100% Reported in Lies and The Lying Liars Who Tell Them by Al Franken. He sites the source as Pew Charitable Trusts Project for Excellence in Journalism.

What does a Critical Thinker do? Check the source Find out who is: Pew Charitable Trusts Project for Excellence in Journalism Determine if they did the study and found the data as reported Determine their credibility Using your web search skills evaluate the above

Thoughts for Critical Thinkers What does a critical thinker think/do? “..between 60% and 70% of American purchasing decisions are made at the point of sale with a very limited amount of information.“ Underhill, Paco Why We Buy: The Science of Shopping, 2002

CT Thoughts a.Wait, sales are like busses there is always another one coming b.Ask yourself; “ Do I really need this, can I buy a less expensive version that does everything I need? c.Check sources for information on reliability, functionality, prices, alternatives (Consumers Report, Kelly Blue Book, PC World, Car and Driver…) Louderback, Jim “But wait That’s not all!” USA Weekend Nov d.Your ideas? Unless you have a lot of money to toss try the following! If you don’t need it, don’t buy it!

Thoughts for Critical Thinkers What does a critical thinker think/do? The flu vaccine shortage is being given to those “At greatest risk for those whose life would be most endangered …” 1.Children 6 months-5 years [NPR Fall 06] 2.Anyone age 2-64 with potentially serious chronic condition 3.Adults 65 and older 4.Pregnant women 5.Residents of long-term care facilities 6.Health care givers 7.Caregivers for children Dr. Isadore Rosenfield Parade Nov 7, 2004 p19 Flu Update Is this reasonable? What group should be first, second…?

What does a Critical Thinker do? Check the source Using your web search skills evaluate the above Pos- Neg- Is this reasonable? What group should be first, second…? No, not according to the Japanese model. They decided to vaccinate school kids when there was limited vaccine— results significant decrease in flu deaths by all categories. Why? School kids get the flu, are the most significant distributors but don’t have a high death rate from the flu since they are not in a high risk category. Any k-6 teacher can verify this because of his/her experience. The Japanese model now has an adequate distribution. Recent Report Recent Report looked at 20 years of data and found flu shots in US have not significantly decreased flu deaths of older people. (Archives of Internal Medicine; 2/14/2005, Vol. 165 Issue 3, p265, 8p )

Week 8-10 [edit 2/17/07]: Week 10, 11 after this Groups C8 concepts web PP, Review (1) C7 problems, Burden of Proof (2) Rev fallacies A03, Slippery slope, Group think, Pity, Relativism, Credibility and miracles, horoscopes Slides…“The Amazing Randy”[movie –Next week F05] Good luck/ Horoscopes, etc. [W6 S4,5] also John Edwards [W7 S9,10] Critical Thinking slides Winner”(W2 S2, S3), Study? (W2 S8,9), -*- Ethics (W7 S2), Iraq and Al Queda Decision (W4 Cooperate Responsibility? (W6 S9), Media Liberal Bias? (W8S5,S6), Purchasing decisions (W8S7,8), Flu vaccine(W8S9,10), SS (W8S2,3,4) Web Credibility Exercise Pt I Boolean (Search Basics), Pt II Credibility Criteria, Pt III Credibility Exercise Class project PT III –Step 1—Done –Step 2---Continuing finished first day week 9 –Step 3---Group Debate Drafts combine/edit A04 TR Due first class Week 9 (Next Wed W05) –Step 4---Oral Debates: Last 2 days in quarter A04 due last day week 8 1 printed copy-send digital copy pro to con (Monday W05) A05– Start Week 9 Day1-Due last class day Week 10, obtaining data, interrupt, conclusions Schedule for remainder of Quarter (W8S13) Chapter 10 Overview –relevance for A05 Chapter 11 Overview –relevance to A05 Note: We do not cover Chapter 9 in this class  1 st Slide

Chapter 8 8 th ed Study Guide A. Deductive arguments [p247] 2 techniques for evaluating Categorical logic, C8, Truth-functional logic, C9 B. Categorical logic Def and Purpose [p248] C.CATEGORICAL CLAIMS 4 standard claims A, E, I, O [Def/ex] and Affirm/Negative [p249] Terms: subject (S) Predicate (P) Venn Diagrams: Filled& Empty parts [p251] D Translations into Standard Form [p251] 1. Purpose (“main idea”) 2. Easy/Simple 3. Past->Present 4. Only P of A claim 5. The only S of A claim 6. Times/occasions: Whenever, Wherever 7. Claim about Individual, objects, places… 8. Mass nouns/kind of stuff E Square of Opposition [p256] Contraries Subcontraries Determining Truth Limits F 3 categorical operations [p258] –Conversion [p258] –Obversion [p259] universe of discourse and complementary class/term –Contraposition/contrapositive [p259] Two common mistakes [Box:p263] ___________________ Syllogisms [p266] Categorical Syllogisms [p266] Terms Relationship Venn diagram of syllogism [p267 & web pract]web pract venn diagram validity test limits of validity test Rules method validity test distribution [b p276] } --rules of thumb-- C8 Everything builds—must memorize A, E, I, O, then Translation, then Square of opposition…  1 st Slide

Schedule W08 Schedule for remainder of quarter. Week 8 First Day --A04 due {2 copies}, Week 9 First Day Pt III first draft of group write up of pro and con for debate due Week 9 –First Day--Start A05 Week 10 Last Class Day --A05 due NO LATE PAPERS Week 10 (last day) -11--Debates

Chapter 8 Categorical Logic F07 Inclusion Exclusion A system of logic developed developed over 2000 years to clarify and evaluate the validity of deductive arguments. The study of categorical logic dates back to Aristotle. Based on the relations of: Relevance: Understand car, cell phone purchase, loans, etc. Understand contractual agreements for renting an apartment completing catalog requirements for a major, etc. Understanding instructions on medicine bottles Understand graduation requirements Etc.

* Standard Categorical Claims 06 A: All _______ are _________(affirmative) E: No________are__________(negative) I: Some_______are__________(affirmative) O: Some______are not _______(negative) (S)ubject: noun or noun phrase*. Example: Methodists (Class members) (P)redicate: noun or noun phrase. Example: Christians (College Students) (S)ubject (P)redicate_ *Only noun or noun phrases are allowed--Not All fire trucks are red (adj)

All shiatsus are dogs. A (affirmative) Some dogs are not animals. O (negative) No men are teachers. E (negative) Some teachers are parents. I (affirmative) Classify these as A, E, I, or O, affirmative or negative

* Venn Diagrams of 4 Standard Claims All Methodists are ChristiansNo Buddhists are Christians Some Christians are MethodistsSome Christians are not Methodists AE IO Circles-classes/categories Shaded-empty Blank-no mention X-some, at least one Methodists ChristiansBuddists Christians Christians MethodistChristians Methodists

Identify claim form and Create a Venn diagram of the following: A (affirmative) O (negative) E (negative) I (affirmative) All shiatsus are dogs. Some dogs are not animals. No men are teachers. Some teachers are parents.

Venn Diagrams of previous slide AE IO All shiatsus are dogs. Some dogs are not animals No men are teachers Some teachers are parents shiatsus dogs men teachers teachers parentsdogs animals

Etc. An introduction, not possible to cover all possibilities. 1.Purpose is to translate an ordinary claim into an equivalent standard form p261 2.Easy translations e.g “Every A is a B --> All A’s are B’s [A: Claim] “Minors are not eligible --> No minors are eligible [E: Claim] 3.Past to present: “There were….” To “Some …”p251 4.Only; Only adults are admitted to see Bad Boys All admitted to Bad Boys are adults 5.The only; The only people allowed to drink beer are over 21 All people allowed to drink beer are over 21 6.Times, occasions, places (whenever, wherever); She makes friends wherever she goes All places she goes are places she makes friends 7,Claims about an individual (object, occasion or place); Hitler was a psychopath All people identical with Hitler are psychopaths 8.Mass nouns; Tattoos are too out of style to get one now All examples of tattoos are too out of style to have now Translation of claims into standard form: “equivalent claims” 06 Introduces predicate of A: Introduces subject of A: Treat as A: are E: claim: Treat as A: claim: A: or E: All…:

Identify the rule and Translate the following: Every salamander is a lizard. Every A: All salamanders are lizards. Snakes are the only members of the suborder Ophidia. Only: All members of the suborder Ophidia are snakes. Wherever there are snakes there are frogs. Whenever, Wherever: All places there are snakes are places there are frogs. Socrates is a Greek. Indiv  Category: All people identical with Socrates are Greeks.

* The Square of Opposition: Correspondence (same S and P) If A is true what is E, I, and O? See next slide

T thus F thus T thus F Known * Determining Truth Values for Corresponding Claims--Example

* Determine Truth Values for Corresponding Exercise 1 All Aluminum cans are recyclable Some Aluminum cans are not recyclable No Aluminum cans are recyclable Some Aluminum cans are recyclable T thus ? Known

* Determine Truth Values for Corresponding Exercise 1 Answers All Aluminum cans are recyclable Some Aluminum cans are not recyclable No Aluminum cans are recyclable Some Aluminum cans are recyclable T thus Fthus T thus F Known

* Determining Truth Values for Corresponding Claims Limits All Muslims are Christians Some Muslims are not Christians No Muslims are Christians Some Muslims are Christians F ?? ? Known Exercise 2

* Determining Truth Values for Corresponding Claims Limits All Muslims are Christians Some Muslims are not Christians No Muslims are Christians Some Muslims are Christians F thus T? ? Known Limits If T at top all known If F at bottom all known If F at top or T at bottom only contradictory known Exercise 2 Answers

* Limits on determining Truth value If we have one truth value, it is often possible to determine other Truth values. True claim, top of square, we can determine all others If we know A is false all we can infer is corresponding O (not E or I) False claim at the bottom (I or O) we can infer other 3 If false at top all can infer is value of contradictory

* Three Categorical Operations Conversion: (E and I claims not A and O) switch S and P [All E and I claims are equivalent but not A and O] Obversion: (A ↔ E, I ↔ O) horizontal change affirmative to negative (vice versa) and replace predicate with its complementary term* [All 4 A, E, I, O are equivalent] Contraposition: (A and O not E and I) switch S and P and replace both with complementary terms. [All A and O claims are equivalent but not E and I] *Universe of discourse-context that limits scope of terms (“everyone passes” [in class not world]) Complementary class-everything in the universe not in first category (everyone not in the class, simplest to put “non” in front of class p259) complementary term-the names of complementary classes (students vs non students (p273))

* Three Categorical Operations--Practice by making change and determine whether it is equivalent to starting claim Converse: “All Shiites are Muslims” All Muslims are Shiites. (not equivalent) Obversion: “No Muslims are Christians” All Muslims are non-Christians. (equivalent) Contrapositive: “No Sunnis are Christians” No non-Christians are non-Sunnis. (not equivalent) equivalency

Obversion Claims 3 All aluminum cans are (recyclable) All Aluminum cans are non-(recyclable) Some Aluminum cans are (not recyclable) Some Aluminum cans are not non-recyclable No Aluminum cans are (recyclable) No Aluminum cans are non-(recyclable) Some Aluminum cans are (recyclable) Some Aluminum cans are not-(not recyclable) T thus Fthus T thus F Known

* Two Syllogisms All animals have X Man has X Therefore man is an animal Man is an animal Animals have Y Therefore man has Y Conclusion used as Premise for another argument Two common Nature vs Nurture arguments * We would have to convert these to standard form for analysis

* Categorical Syllogisms Standard form, two premise deductive argument, whose every claim is a standard form categorical claim in which three terms occur exactly twice in exactly two of the claims Example: All CSUB students are college students Some college students are not dorm residents Therefore some CSUB students are not dorm residents Terms: P Major (predicate of conclusion) -- dorm residents S Minor (subject of conclusion) -- CSUB students M Middle (both premises but not in conclusion) -- college students

Relationship of Terms Americans (Socialists) Consumers (Collectivists) Democrats (Republicans)

* Venn Diagram Validity Test-0 Minor Major Middle No Republicans are Collectivists All Socialists are Collectivists Therefore, no Socialists are Republicans (p267 and Categorical Logic)Categorical Logic

* Venn Diagram Validity Test-1 No Republicans are Collectivists Minor Major Middle

* Venn Diagram Validity Test-2 All Socialists are Collectivists Minor Major Middle Since result (green and purple) shade the areas and are empty no Socialists are Republicans, we have a correct diagram of the conclusion, a valid syllogism

* Venn Diagram test of Validity (1) Some syllogisms are problematic -I or O as one premise, where to place the X If one premise A or E and other premise is I or O diagram A or E first (p287) and there is no longer a choice of where to place the X (2) Some syllogisms still have a problem-an X could go either of two places. Place the X on the line If the the X falls entirely within the appropriate area the argument is valid. If the X fails to entirely fall within the area the argument is invalid (p289) (3) When both premises of a syllogism are A or E (shading) and the conclusion is an I or O (an X), a diagram cannot possibly yield a diagram of the conclusion –If any area has only one area unshaded place the X there and then the conclusion can possibly be read—valid, if not the conclusion is invalid (p267…)

* Rules Method for Test of Validity p294 (1) # Negative claims premises = # negative claims conclusion (2) One premise must distribute * the middle term (3) Any term distributed* in conclusion must be distributed in premise * Distributed: see next slide

A-claimall S are P E-claimNo S are P I- claimSome S are P O-claimSome S are not P * Distributed: claim says something about every member of the class. Memorize this to apply rules method. The circled terms are distributed

Quiz Chapt 9—From Chapter quiz (quiz file link on class schedule) (1) Display the first claim (a) in a square of opposition (2) Translate, if necessary, and Create a Venn diagram test of this syllogism (3) State the rules for tests of validity and apply the rules to test the validity of this syllogism if possible. {state why not possible if this is the case} (a) Man is an animal (b) Animals have Y (c) Therefore man has Y

Determining Truth Values for Corresponding Claims 2 All Men are Animals Some Men are not Animals No Men are Animals Some Men are Animals T thus FT F Known Limits If one T at top all known If one F at bottom all known If both F at top or T at bottom only contradictory known

Venn Diagram Validity Test-2 Minor Major Middle

Thoughts for Critical Thinkers What does a critical thinker think/do? “..PAIN: Redheads need 20% more painkiller.“ “Research breakthrough” USA Weekend Nov

CT Thoughts a... b... c... d... e... f... g... Based on Chapter 11, What do you need to know? University of Louisville study presented at meeting of American Society of Anesthesiologists, Sample 10 redheads and 10 brunettes given a common anesthetic then electrically shocked until moved only ½ the time, redheads required 20% more anesthesia.

Identify the errors and rewrite the following answers to the question 1.The burden of proof is not placed on the person who is making the argument, but on the one that the argument is being argued to: they must prove the argument valid or invalid Ex: The court of law the prosecutor’s goal is to prove beyond a reasonable doubt though the defense is the one making the argument. Exception: Special circumstances. Like if you go to the doctor and they tell you that you you need a heart transplant; you want a second opinion 2When the affirmative makes the opponent prove an argument Ex: God exist, one person says God does not exist, so the first person says, Prove it then Exception: It is unplausable 3.When the second person states a claim and has the burden. Example Jose I believe and then Tony says “I believe in God” Tony has the burden of proof because he claimed it second 4.When there is a doubt you can prove your point. Ex: When someone says there are aliens Exception: In court cases when you have more cons against a person but you have 2 good claims to prove them innocent. 5.The placing of the requirement for proof on the wrong side of an issue. Example: God is real and exists, the burden of proof is placed on the person who is for something, rather then against. Exception: Doesn't have one. 6.The person who (1) makes the claim is required to provide evidence to support the claim, (2) and if he/she leaves it up to the listener to provide evidence that is a mistake in burden of proof. Ex: There is a God because he appeared and spoke to me Exception: There is a God because you said so. 7. Burden of proof is when a person needs to explain why the argument is true. Ex. Two people are conversating and one says God is real. The person who believes that God is real has the burden of proof Define with “rules of thumb”, give an example and an exception to the fallacy of burden of proof.

Misplaced Burden of Proof--Class definition/example errors W07 Definitions 1.When you try to make your claim credible by saying it has been researched or proven but don’t site the study 2.Lack of evidence to support a claim. 3.Beyond a reasonable doubt. 4.You require the other person to prove their position. 5.The proof source must be credible 6.In an argument the against position has the Burden of Proof 7.Premise doesn't lead to the conclusion 8.The party/side who does not have the answer has to prove Examples 1.Kobe Bryant could have been proven guilty with DNA 2.Sandy I want you to prove why Judaism is believable. 3.Sam: “Lowering taxes will be good for the economy” Jim: “prove it” Exceptions 1.Kobe is innocent 2.When a third person does not know what is being argued about and the person serves as a mediator 3.The car is not starting because my starter failed 4.If you know for a fact the proof you have is valid and strong then OJ must be guilty

Search Suggestions S1 W07 Eliminate unwanted categories with “-” in Google eg. -.com Use Yahoo and check subsets –often good sources Alternative search engines for specific data or sources— e.g. FirstGov Process—make first search, check results and change search to eliminate unwanted Use Google Scholar for academic sources or News for newspapers, etc. Use advanced search to narrow search even more eg specific dates

Web Credibility Techniques S1 W07 Domain—some indicator but not alone. e.g. a.edu could be PR for the school, a professor’s site, a student’s site… Content—scan for face validity (does it appear reasonable) (a) Layout/presentation (professional, boring, flashy, etc.) (b) Is parent organization listed and can be confirmed with another source Goal, purpose of parent… Purpose (inform, educate, humor…) Source (University, authors, journals ???)—back up URL and use Google to find and evaluate source credibility (a) Sources, links, policies, listed and are they reasonable? Library Criteria 