February 9, 2005 Who’s here? JFK in Nashville in 1963 Representation Readings Congress as an institution for Representation Mayhew Fenno Poole/Rosenthal

What is Representation?

Conceptions of Representation Policy/Issue Collective Service/ Allocational Symbolic/ Descriptive Yes No High Low District-Based Conception Policy Content

Policy/Issues Style Focus Delegate: follow the mandate of constituents Trustee: exercise independent judgment “Politico”: switches roles or may engage be a delegate and trustee at same time Focus The constituency that is being represented

Policy/Issue Studies Wahlke et al (1952): divide members into trustee, delegate, and “politico” Miller & Stokes (1958): attempt to link constituent opinions to legislator’s behavior Social Welfare: Vote by Party Civil Rights: Delegate Role Foreign Affairs: Deference to Executive Fenno (1977): “home style”; members convince constituents that they represent them regardless of the extent of agreement

Policy/Issue Studies Continued Browne (1995): constituents influence vote on agricultural legislation Hall (1987, 1996): district influences legislator membership on committees

“Perceptions of the Constituency” Richard F. Fenno, Jr.

Concentric Constituencies Geographic Reelection Primary Personal

Geographical Constituency “The District” Physical: specified by boundaries Internal Demographic and Political Variables: socioeconomic status, ethnicity, ideology, partisanship, religion, diversity, etc. Heterogeneity v. Homogeneity: variable that seems to determine members’ perceptions of their districts

Reelection Constituency “The Supporters” Who she thinks will vote for her Reference points in determining reelection constituency Cross-Sectional Longitudinal Partisans, Cross-Party, Least-Likely “Last Time” v. “This Time” Challenger has greatest potential for altering the size and composition of reelection constituency Issues can alter reelection constituency

Primary Constituency “The Strongest Supporters” Weak supporters: follow routines (straight party) or are temporary (waiting for alternative) Strong supporters: more political activity, will not support any challenger Difficult to delineate primary constituency in some cases, members who recently emerged from a primary election can determine their primary constituency

Personal Constituency “The Intimates” Few individuals: closest advisors and confidants, sometimes a spouse (“Kitchen Cabinet”) Usually the people who have been by an official since their first race Thought of as “friends”

“The Electoral Connection and Congress” David R. Mayhew

Proximate Goal Reelection Universal Cannot achieve other goals if member is not reelected “All members of Congress have a primary interest in getting re-elected. Some members have no other interest.”

Activities Useful for Reelection Advertising visiting constituency, non-political speeches to home audiences, letters of condolence and congratulation, newsletters, opinion editorials Franking Privilege

Activities Useful for Reelection Credit Claiming: generating belief that the legislator is personally responsible for a government change Particularized Benefits Given to specific individual or group that allows the single legislator to be recognized Done in an ad hoc fashion

Activities Useful for Reelection Position-taking: “public enunciation of a judgmental statement on anything likely to be of interest to political actors” roll call vote, floor addresses, speeches, television appearances, letters, press releases, interviews, etc.

Institution Meets Electoral Needs Benefits Associated with the Office Staff, casework capabilities, franking privilege Seniority Committee Structure Platform for position-taking, particularized benefits, allows division of labor among members Parties Majority party could cut off particularized benefits from minority party, but this has not happened

“Member Goals” Richard F. Fenno, Jr.

Basic Goals of a Legislator 1. Reelection 2. Influence within the House 3. Good Public Policy X. (career beyond house, private gain) Committee membership reflects the goal of a legislators

Appropriations, Ways & Means “Power,” “Prestige,” “Importance” Reflects desire to have influence within the House

Interior, Post Office “District Interests,” “Projects,” “Political Help” Reflects goal of reelection by helping constituents

Education, Labor, Foreign Affairs “Interesting,” “Exciting,” “Controversial,” “Important” Reflects goal of making good public policy

Congress: A Political-Economic History of Roll Call Voting Keith T Congress: A Political-Economic History of Roll Call Voting Keith T. Poole, Howard Rosenthal et al LIBERAL CONSERVATIVE

Motivation of Legislator Ideology Liberal to Conservative Spectrum Constraint Hypothesis: issues tend to be mapped onto a fixed ordering or placement of legislators Voting tends to be highly consistent over a member’s time in office. History: http://www.voteview.com/h461051.htm

Service/Allocational Obtaining projects that help the district (“pork) or interceding in the bureacracy (“cutting through red tape) Motives Sense of duty Grateful constituents = Reelection Studies on impact of pork for reelection mixed Issues: necessary for constituents to have help?, votes for district at expense of nation?

Symbolic/Descriptive Legislator as “symbol” that represents public Representation may extend beyond geographic boundaries of the district Individual Examples: female legislator as advocate for women nationally, minority legislator as advocate for minorities nationally Group Example: legislative caucuses

Collective Represent constituents with a more collective view political parties Congress as representative of the nation as a whole May lead to conflict with district constituents

The Great Divide Trustee Representation (Burkean) Delegate Representation

Congressional Procedures and the Policy Process Walter J. Oleszek

The Constitutional Context Limited Government Separation of Powers Checks and Balances Federalism

Functions of Rules and Procedures • Stability (and predictability) • Legitimacy • Division of Labor • Protection of Minority Rights • Conflict Resolution • Distribution of Power

Rules and Policy Making in Congress • Procedure and Policy Procedures affect outcomes. Procedural moves express policy decisions. The nature of policy determines the use of procedure. Procedural expertise helps members impact policy. • Conventional versus Unconventional Lawmaking “I’m just a bill…” • Precedents and Folkways Precedents: “…the accumulated past decisions on matters of procedure…” Folkways: “…unwritten norms of behavior that members are expected to observe.”

Congressional Decision Making • Decentralized Power Structure Political and structural realities More than 200 committees and subcommittees Parties can provide cohesion. • Multiple Decision Points • Bargaining and Coalition Building Logrolling Compromise Nonlegislative Favors • The Congressional Cycle Two-Year Deadline

House versus Senate • The Big Three • Complexity of Rules House Senate Size of Body Size of District Length of Term • Complexity of Rules House More rules and precedent constrict members “Subordination of the individual to the necessities of the whole…” Key members impact legislation. Majority rule Senate “…Rules maximize freedom of expression...” “…More personal and individualistic All Senators participate actively. Often slower Supermajoritarian

House versus Senate continued • Policy Incubation • Specialists versus Generalists • Distribution of Power More even in Senate • Similarities Equal power Lawmaking, oversight and representation Heavy workloads Decentralized committee and party structures Dependence on staff

Pressures on Members • President & Executive Branch • The Fourth Estate • Constituent Pressures • Washington Lobbyists

Credits Adrian Rodriguez & Alex Theodoridis Presentation based on: Weisberg, Herbert F., Eric S. Heberlig and Lisa M. Campoli, Classics in Congressional Politics “What is Representation?”, Weisberg et al eds. (Glenview: Longman 1999) pp. 68-82. Image on Cover from: The Architect of the Capitol http://www.aoc.gov/cc/capitol/c_wf_1.cfm Concepts of Representation slide based on: Table 5.1 in Weisberg et al, p. 74. Presentation based on: Fenno, Jr., Richard F., Home Style: House Members in their Districts (Glenview: Little, Brown & Company 1978), “Perceptions of the Constituency”, pp. 1-30. Image on Cover from: US Environmental Protection Agency http://www.epa.gov/oaintrnt/images/water_home.jpg