The Earth. General Features Mass: M Earth = 6 x 10 27 g Radius: R Earth = 6378 km Density:  = 5.5 g/cm 3 Age: 4.6 billion years.

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Presentation transcript:

The Earth

General Features Mass: M Earth = 6 x g Radius: R Earth = 6378 km Density:  = 5.5 g/cm 3 Age: 4.6 billion years

Earth's Internal Structure Crust: thin. Much Si and Al (lots of granite). Two-thirds covered by oceans. How do we know? Earthquakes. See later Mantle is mostly solid, mostly basalt (Fe, Mg, Si). Cracks in mantle allow molten material to rise => volcanoes. Core temperature is 6000 K. Metallic - mostly nickel and iron. Outer core molten, inner core solid. Atmosphere very thin

Earth's Atmosphere 78% Nitrogen 21% Oxygen gas is ionized by solar radiation ozone is O 3, which absorbs solar UV efficiently, thus heating stratosphere commercial jet altitudes room temperature Original gases disappeared. Atmosphere is mostly due to volcanoes and plants!

Ionosphere Particles in the upper reaches of the atmosphere are ionized by the sun. Radio signals below ~20 MHz can “bounce” off the ionosphere allowing Communication “over the horizon”

Convection Earth's surface heated by Sun. What would happen if it couldn't get rid of the energy as fast as it gets in? Convection causes both small-scale turbulence and large scale circulation patterns. It also occurs within Earth, on other planets, and in stars. Convection also occurs when you boil water, or soup. Think of Earth's surface as a boiling pot!

The Greenhouse Effect Main greenhouse gases are H 2 O and CO 2. If no greenhouse effect, surface would be 40 o C cooler!

Clicker Question: The dinosaurs were most likely wiped out by: A: disease B: hunting to extinction by cavemen C: a giant meteor impact D: the close passage of another star

Clicker Question: A leading cause of Global Warming is: A: Increased soot (smog) in the atmosphere. B: Increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. C: The Earth is getting closer to the sun. D: The luminosity of the sun is steadily increasing.

Clicker Question: The Greenhouse effect would not occur if: A: The Earth had no atmosphere. B: The amount of carbon dioxide doubled. C: We got rid of all the forests. D: The Earth didn’t have an ocean.

Burning carbon-containing fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide. (Combustion) C + O 2 CO 2 Global Warming Basics Pollution is the Primary Cause Global Warming: The Greatest Threat © 2006 Deborah L. Williams

Global Temperature Change (deg F) Year CO 2 Concentration (ppm) 1000 Years of CO 2 and Global Temperature Change Temperature CO 2 CO 2 : Most Significant Greenhouse Pollutant Global Warming Basics Source: ACIA 2004 Jennifer Allen graphic Global Warming: The Greatest Threat © 2006 Deborah L. Williams CO 2 CH 4  Humans have increased carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) in the atmosphere by more than 35% since the Industrial Revolution. (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2006)  The most carbon dioxide in 650,000 years. (IPCC 2007)

Temperature Measurements  “Warming of the climate system is UNEQUIVOCAL” (IPCC 2007)  Top 11 warmest years on record have all occurred in the last 12 years. (IPCC 2007)  2006 warmest year on record in continental US. (NOAA 1/07).

Alaska is Ground Zero Chapman and Walsh, 2004 In past 50 years, Alaska: Temperatures have increased 4 o F overall (National Assessment Synthesis Team) Worldwide: Temperatures have increased Slightly more than 1 o F (IPCC 2007) Surface Air Temperature Trends Global Warming Basics Global Warming: The Greatest Threat © 2006 Deborah L. Williams Chapman and Walsh, 2004

 Snow and sea ice reflect 85-90% of sun’s energy.  Ocean surface and dark soil reflect only 10-20%. The Albedo Effect “White shirt versus Black shirt” Why has Alaska warmed the most? Increased melting of snow and sea ice Increased melting of snow and sea ice More of sun’s heat energy is absorbed More dark earth and ocean surface is exposed More dark earth and ocean surface is exposed Land or water warms faster Global Warming Basics Global Warming: The Greatest Threat © 2006 Deborah L. Williams (ACIA 2004)

Source ACIA, 2004 Jennifer Allen Animation  An area twice the size of Texas has melted away since 1979 (over 20% decrease). (National Snow and Ice Data Center 2005)  Ice 40% thinner. (Rothrock,D.A, et al. 1999)  Ice only 6 – 9 feet thick at North Pole ( NOAA FAQ 2007).  Northwest passage opened Aug 21, 2007 Impacts in Alaska 1. Melting Melting Sea Ice | | | | | Arctic Sea Ice Extent (millions of sq. km.) Source: NSIDC, 2005 ARCTIC SEA ICE AREA Global Warming: The Greatest Threat © 2006 Deborah L. Williams

Impacts in Alaska 1. Melting Global Warming: The Greatest Threat © 2006 Deborah L. Williams Melting Sea Ice Arctic Ocean could be ice free in summer by 2040 (U.S National Center for Atmospheric Research 2006). “Our research indicates that society can still minimize the impacts on Arctic ice.” Dr. Marika Holland, National Center for Atmospheric Research

Impact World-wide 1. Melting Global Warming: The Greatest Threat © 2006 Deborah L. Williams Impact on Ski Industry In the US skiing is a $5B industry 2006 saw a 78% decline in skiers visiting the pacific northwest US Ski Seasons have shortened by 1 day/year for the last 20 years Many European ski resorts below 1800 m (6000 ft) will close 50 to 90% of Alpine glaciers will be gone by 2100 Some resort to snowmaking Expensive Requires lots of water Requires lots of energy In New Mexico, many ski areas can’t open until after Xmas

Impacts in Alaska 1. Melting  The rapid retreat of Alaska’s glaciers represents about 50% of the estimated mass loss by glaciers through 2004 worldwide. (ACIA 2004)  Loss of over 588 billion cubic yards between ’61 and ’98. (Climate Change 11/05)  Alaska’s glaciers are responsible for at least 9% of the global sea level rise in the past century. (ACIA 2004) Glacier Bay (Riggs Glacier) USGS photo Bruce Molnia photo Glacial Retreat 2003 Matt Nolan photo Austin Post photo 1958 McCall Glacier

Polar bears Walruses Ice seals Black guillemots Kittiwakes Salmon Caribou Arctic grayling Impacts in Alaska 3. Animals Animals at Risk  Rising temperatures  Shrinking habitat  Food harder to get  Expanding diseases  Competition Polar bears Walruses Ice seals Caribou Black guillemots Kittiwakes Salmon Arctic grayling

Inundation  Sea level has increased 3.1 mm/year between 1993 and 2003 (IPCC 2007).  This is times faster than during the last 3,000 years (ACIA 2004).  meters of sea level rise by 2100 if 3 times pre- industrial CO2 or 1% increase/year (Overpeck et al. 2006).

Inundation Inundation from Four Meter Sea Level Rise (or, 1m rise + 3m storm surge) Weiss and Overpeck, 2006

Photo courtesy of 7summits.com What We Can Do 1. Is it Achievable? 2. Action Is Essential at Every Level Individual Corporate Local State Federal International 3. Critical Steps R E D U C E C O 2 E M I S S I O N S Global Warming: The Greatest Threat © 2006 Deborah L. Williams

What We Can Do Wind Power Global Warming: The Greatest Threat © 2006 Deborah L. Williams

Measuring Your Carbon Footprint Major Carbon Contributors:  Electric Consumption  Gas/Heating Oil Consumption  Car and Miles Driven  Miles Flown  Recreational Vehicle Use Average Footprint is 30,000 pounds

Conservation: Three Examples Unplug Appliances  Vampires!  43 billion kWH lost/year in US  Est: 1,000 lbs/year/person Pump Up Tires  4 million gallon of gas wasted daily in US  Extends life of tires by 25%  Est: 1,000 lbs/year/person Lower Thermostat  2 degrees  Est: 2000 lbs/year/person What We Can Do

Energy Efficiency: Two Examples Compact Fluorescents  Four to six times more efficient  Est: for each bulb converted, save about 100 lbs/year Bus/Walk/Bike  Save money on fuel and maintenance  Est: 5,000 lbs/year

Earthquakes They are vibrations in the solid Earth, or seismic waves. Two kinds go through Earth, P-waves ("primary") and S-waves ("secondary"):

How do they measure where Earthquakes are centered? * * * seismic stations

Like all waves, seismic waves bend when they encounter changes in density. If density change is gradual, wave path is curved. S-waves are unable to travel in liquid. Thus, measurement of seismic wave gives info on density of Earth's interior and which layers are solid/molten. But faint P waves seen in shadow zone, refracting off dense inner core Curved paths of P and S waves: density must slowly increase with depth Zone with no S waves: must be a liquid core that stops them No P waves too: they must bend sharply at core boundary

Earth's Interior Structure Average density Crust Mantle Core 5.5 g/cm 3 3 g/cm 3 5 g/cm 3 11 g/cm 3 Density increases with depth => "differentiation" Earth must have been molten once, allowing denser material to sink, as it started to cool and solidify.

Earthquakes and volcanoes are related, and also don't occur at random places. They outline plates. Plates moving at a few cm/year. "Continental drift" or "plate tectonics"

When plates meet... 1) Head-on collision (Himalayas) 2) "Subduction zone" (one slides under the other) (Andes) 3) "Rift zone" (two plates moving apart) (Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Rio Grande) 4) They may just slide past each other (San Andreas Fault) side view top view => mountain ranges, trenches, earthquakes, volcanoes

Clicker Question: Sunlight absorbed by the Earth’s surface is reemitted in the form of? A: radio waves B: infrared radiation C: visible radiation D: ultraviolet radiation E: X-ray radiation

Clicker Question: What steps are you willing to take to reduce your carbon dioxide footprint? A: Walk/bike/bus to work B: Unplug appliances when not in use C: Replace light bulbs with compact fluorescents D: Wash clothes in cold or warm water E: Buy a Prius

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a rift zone.

What causes the drift? Convection! Mantle slightly fluid and can support convection. Plates ride on top of convective cells. Lava flows through cell boundaries. Earth loses internal heat this way. Cycles take ~10 8 years. Plates form lithosphere (crust and solid upper mantle). Partially melted, circulating part of mantle is asthenosphere.

Pangaea Theory: 200 million years ago, all the continents were together!