A Synthesis of Generic Guidelines for Good Teaching Summer Neel Advanced Educational Psychology Spring 2012

Effective teaching begins with diversity The key to a well rounded and effective teaching environment is rooted in the educator’s ability to utilize multiple theories, instructional practices and schema to create a consistent and comprehensive system of teaching

12 principles of good teaching Supportive Classroom Climate Opportunity to Learn Curricular Alignment Establishing Learning Orientations Coherent Content Thoughtful Discourse Practice and Application Activities Scaffolding Students Task Engagement Strategy Teaching Cooperative Learning Goal-Oriented Assessment Achievement Expectations

Supportive Classroom Climate Students learn best within cohesive and caring learning communities Research has shown Productive learning occurs when there is an ethics of caring evoked The supportive classroom promotes student responsibility and teacher commitment

Supportive Classroom Climate Implementation To create a climate for molding their students into a cohesive and supportive learning community, teachers need to engage in Conducive physical environment Effective Lesson content and delivery Positive interpersonal relationship with students Promoting Positive peer relationships Consistent organization & behavior expectations

Opportunity to Learn Students learn more when most of the available time is allocated to curriculum related activities the classroom management system emphasizes maintaining their engagement in those activities Research indicates that teachers who approach management as a process of establishing an effective learning environment tend to be more successful than teachers who emphasize their roles as disciplinarians

Opportunities to Learn in the Classroom There are more things worth learning than there is time available to teach them, and so it is essential that limited classroom time be used efficiently Effective teachers convey a sense of the purposefulness of schooling and the importance of getting the most out of the available time Successful teachers are clear and consistent in articulating their expectations These teachers spend a great deal of time actively instructing by elaborating content for students and helping them to interpret and respond to it

http://www.icyd.iowa.gov/Learning_supports/overview.html

Curricular Alignment All components of the curriculum are aligned to create a cohesive program for accomplishing instructional purposes and goals Research indicates that educational policy-makers, textbook publishers and teachers often become so focused on content coverage or learning activities that they lose sight of the larger purposes and goals that are supposed to guide curriculum planning

Curricular Alignment in the classroom A curriculum is not an end in itself; it is a means of helping students to learn what is considered essential for preparing them to fulfill adult roles in society and realize their potential as individuals Goals in planning curriculum and instruction should develop capabilities that students can use in their lives inside and outside school, both now and in the future Content developed with these goals in mind is likely to be retained as meaningful learning that is internally coherent, well connected with other meaningful learning and accessible for application

http://www. ucdoer. ie/index http://www.ucdoer.ie/index.php/Using_Biggs'_Model_of_Constructive_Alignment_in_Curriculum_Design/Introduction

Establishing Learning Orientations Teachers can prepare students for learning by providing an initial structure to clarify intended outcomes Teachers must also cue desired learning strategies Research indicates the value of establishing a learning orientation by beginning lessons and activities with advance organizers or previews These introductions facilitate students’ learning by communicating the nature and purpose of the activity connecting it to prior knowledge cueing the kinds of student responses that the activity requires

Establishing Learning Orientations in the Classroom Advance organizers orient students to what they will be learning before the instruction begins characterize the general nature of the activity give students a structure within which to understand and connect the specifics that will be presented by the teacher or text Such knowledge of the nature of the activity and the structure of its content helps students to focus on the main ideas and order their thoughts effectively

Establishing Learning Orientations in the Classroom Other ways to help students learn with a sense of purpose and direction include calling attention to the activity’s goals overviewing main ideas or major steps to be elaborated pretests that sensitize students to main points to learn pre-questions that stimulate their thinking about the topic References: Ausubel (1968); Brophy (1998); Meichenbaum & Biemiller (1998).

Coherent Content To facilitate meaningful learning and retention, content is explained clearly Content is developed with emphasis on its structure and connections Research indicates that networks of connected knowledge structured around powerful ideas can be learned with understanding and retained in forms that make them accessible for application In contrast, disconnected bits of information are likely to be learned only through low-level processes such as rote memorizing, and most of these bits either are soon forgotten or are retained in ways that limit their accessibility

skills are likely to be learned and used effectively if taught as strategies adapted to particular purposes and situations

Coherent Content in the Classroom Whether in textbooks or in teacher-led instruction, information is easier to learn to the extent that it is coherent the sequence of ideas or events makes sense and the relationships among them are apparent Content is most likely to be organized coherently when it is selected in a principled way guided by ideas about what students should learn from studying the topic

Combining Curricular Alignment & Coherent Content In order to enable students to construct meaningful knowledge that they can access and use in their lives outside of school teachers need to: retreat from breadth of coverage in order to allow time to develop the most important content in greater depth represent this important content as networks of connected information structured around powerful ideas develop the content with a focus on explaining these important ideas and the connections among them follow up with authentic learning activities and assessment measures that provide students with opportunities to develop and display learning that reflects the intended outcomes of the instruction

Thoughtful Discourse Questions are planned to engage students in sustained discourse structured around powerful ideas Questions to stimulate students to process and reflect on content, recognize relationships among and implications of its key ideas, think critically about it, and use it in problem solving, decision making or other higher-order applications Questions should reflect sustained and thoughtful development of key ideas Why is that?

Tell me why you think that is true? Well, First, I was reading the other day that ……

Thoughtful Discourse in the Classroom Questions should reflect sustained and thoughtful development of key ideas In the early stages of units when new content is introduced and developed, more time is spent in interactive lessons featuring teacher/student discourse than in independent work on assignments The teacher plans sequences of questions designed to develop the content systematically help students to construct understandings by relating it to their prior knowledge Create a dialogue about content forms and cognitive levels of these questions should be suited to the instructional goals in the curriculum

Thoughtful Discourse in the Classroom Thoughtful discourse features sustained examination of a small number of related topics, in which students develop explanations make predictions debate alternative approaches to problems consider the content’s implications or applications The teacher presses students to clarify or justify their assertions, rather than accepting them indiscriminately In addition to providing feedback, the teacher encourages students to explain or elaborate on their answers to comment on classmates’ answers References: Good & Brophy (2000); Newmann (1990); Rowe (1986). 20

Practice and Application Activities Students need sufficient opportunities to practice and apply what they are learning, and to receive improvement-oriented feedback Research indicates that skills practiced to a peak of smoothness and automaticity tend to be retained indefinitely, whereas skills that are mastered only partially tend to deteriorate

There are 3 main ways teachers help their students to learn they present information, explain concepts and model skills they ask questions and lead their students in discussion about content being studied they engage students in activities or assignments that provide them with opportunities to practice or apply what they are learning

Practice and Application Activities in the Classroom Practice is one of the most important yet least appreciated aspects of learning in classrooms Successful practice involves polishing skills that are already established at rudimentary levels in order to make them smoother, more efficient and more automatic Most practice should be embedded within application contexts that feature conceptual understanding of knowledge and self regulated application of skills Opportunity to learn in school can be extended through homework assignments that are realistic in length and difficulty given the students’ abilities to work independently practice must involve opportunities not only to apply skills but also to receive timely feedback

Scaffolding Students Task Engagement The teacher provides whatever assistance students need to enable them to engage in learning activities productively Research on learning tasks indicates the effectiveness of assignments is enhanced when teachers first explain the work and go over practice examples with students then release them to work independently circulate to monitor progress and provide help when needed Teaching within the students’ Zones of Proximal Development (ZPD) implies that students will need explanation, modeling, coaching and other forms of assistance teacher structuring and scaffolding will be faded as the students’ expertise develops

Scaffolding Students Task Engagement in the Classroom if they are to have their full impact activities need to be effectively presented monitored followed up Teachers must prepare students for an activity in advance provide guidance and feedback during the activity and lead the class in post-activity reflection afterwards Teachers also need to assess performance for completion and accuracy and reteach when necessary Full effectiveness cannot be reached unless the assignments are followed by reflection or debriefing activities

Strategy Teaching The teacher models and instructs students in learning and self-regulation strategies Research shows that Strategy teaching is especially important for less able students who otherwise might not come to understand the value of consciously monitoring, self-regulating and reflecting upon their learning processes

Strategy Teaching in the Classroom Many students do not develop effective learning and problem solving strategies on their own but can acquire them through modeling and explicit instruction from their teachers Strategy teaching is likely to be most effective when it includes cognitive modeling the teacher thinks out loud while modeling use of the strategy

general study skills and learning strategies that teachers can model for their students Rehearsal repeating material to remember it more effectively Elaboration putting material into one’s own words and relating it to prior knowledge Organization outlining material to highlight its structure and remember it Comprehension Monitoring keeping track of the strategies used to construct understandings and the degree of success achieved with them, and adjusting strategies accordingly Affect Monitoring Maintaining concentration and task focus minimizing performance anxiety and fear of failure

Cooperative Learning Students often benefit from working in pairs or small groups to construct understandings or help one another master skills Research indicates that there is often much to be gained by arranging for students to collaborate in pairs or small groups Co-operative learning promotes affective and social benefits Co-operative learning creates the potential for cognitive and metacognitive benefits by engaging students in discourse that requires them to make their task-related information-processing and problem-solving strategies explicit

Cooperative Learning in the Classroom replaces individual seatwork time with opportunities for students to work together in pairs or small groups on follow-up practice and application activities Co-operative learning can be used with activities ranging from drill and practice to learning facts and concepts, discussion and problem solving It is perhaps most valuable as a way of engaging students in meaningful learning with authentic tasks in a social setting

Cooperative Learning in the Classroom Some forms of co-operative learning call for students to help one another achieve individual learning goals Co-operative learning methods are most likely to enhance learning outcomes if they combine group goals with individual accountability

Goal-Oriented Assessment The teacher uses a variety of formal and informal assessment methods to monitor progress towards learning goals Research has determined that well-developed curriculum includes strong and functional assessment components These assessment components are aligned with the curriculum’s goals They are integrated with its content, instructional methods and learning activities They are designed to evaluate progress towards the major intended outcomes

Goal-Oriented Assessment in the Classroom Effective teachers use assessment for evaluating students’ progress in learning and for planning curriculum improvements, not just for generating grades Good assessment includes data from many sources and addresses the full range of goals or intended outcomes Assessment should be treated as an ongoing and integral part of each instructional unit Results should be scrutinized to identify learner needs misunderstandings or misconceptions that may need attention potential adjustment in curriculum goals, instructional materials or teaching plans weaknesses in the assessment practices themselves

Achievement Expectations The teacher establishes and follows through on appropriate expectations for learning outcomes Research indicates that effective schools feature strong academic leadership that produces consensus on goal priorities commitment to instructional excellence Positive teacher attitudes towards students expectations regarding students’ abilities to master the curriculum

Achievement Expectations in the Classroom Teachers’ expectations concerning what their students are capable of accomplishing shape what teachers attempt to elicit from their students what the students come to expect from themselves It is helpful if teachers set goals for the class and for individuals in terms of floors (minimally acceptable standards), not ceilings all students should be held accountable for participating in lessons and learning activities and for turning in careful and completed work on assignments teachers should emphasize continuous progress relative to previous levels of mastery rather than how students compare with their classmates or with standardized test norms

Teachers are likely to be most successful when they think in terms of stretching students’ minds by stimulating them and encouraging them to achieve as much as they can, not in terms of ‘protecting’ them from failure or embarrassment

References Geneva Switzerland. UNESCO. International Bureau of Education. By Jere Brophy. Web. <www.ibe.unesco.org/.../EducationalPracticesSeriesPdf/prac01e.pdf>. Alexander, Patricia A., and Philip H. Winne. Handbook of Educational Psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2006. Print.