The Police and Soft Technology: Assessing the Link between Information Technology and Police Performance

Police and Technology: A Brief History  The first technological revolution in policing that produced a notable change in their function came about with the advent of the telephone, the two-way radio, and the automobile.  With the proliferation of the telephone in the early 20th century, policing changed.  Citizens called, and in fact were encouraged to call, the police to deal with a multitude of problems, and the police responded to those calls from dispatch via a two-way radio, and sped quickly to locations via patrol cars.

The New Technological Revolution in Policing  Problem-Orientated Policing (POP) and Community-Orientated Policing (COP) now encourage police to make greater use of the data they routinely collect, and to be more analytic with regards to the data they utilize for tactical and strategic decision making.  POP and COP strategies encourage police to go beyond individual calls for service, and instead take on the problems underlying them.

Data Collection and Management Innovations in Policing  Record Management Systems (RMS)  Computer-Aided Dispatch (CAD) Systems  Mobile Data Terminals (MDTs)  Compstat and CAM: Crime Mapping and Crime Analysis  Early Intervention Systems

Funding New Police Technology  COPS MORE grants helped more than4,500 law enforcement agencies acquire and implement technology in support of efficient community policing operations.  The grants totaled more than $1.3 billion and funded crime-fighting technologies that helped redeploy the equivalent of more than 42,000 full-time law enforcement professionals into CP.

Evidence of Impact of New Innovations on Police Performance  National Research Council review of police performance (2004) revealed that there is no evidence of improved performance linked to recent police innovations.  Peter Manning(2008) reached the same conclusion in his detailed case studies of police technology innovations in three police departments: Washington, Boston, and an unnamed medium sized American city, called Western.  A recent Campbell Collaborative Evidence-Based Review of COP programs( 2008) did identify a significant, but modest, impact on performance.

Record Management Systems (RMS)  A RMS is a way to manage information, from criminal reports and arrest records to personnel records and fingerprints, and will be utilized by almost all staff in any given department.

Record Management Systems  Faster access to information (patrol officers  Improved information about crime and calls for service (command staff)  More accurate information (command staff)  Improved UCR reporting (records section  Reduced data entry (records section personnel)  Improved investigative case management

Computer-Aided Dispatch (CAD) Systems  Currently, more than 97 million calls for service to 911 are made annually, and the number has been increasing, especially with the proliferation of cell phones.  One solution adopted by some cities was to develop a non-emergency number, such as 311.  Another response is to attempt to sustain rapid police response to true emergencies (e.g. crimes in progress), while eliminating police response to calls that do not ultimately demand their attention, or “stacking” calls that require police attention, but where a delayed response is adequate.  New features to existing CAD systems have been developed as a technology to serve this role.

Mobile Data Terminals (MDTs)  MDTs are now essentially in-car laptop computers, capable of performing the same tasks as a desktop computer.  Such MDTs can be used to obtain information about a call for service (e.g. previous calls from that address), and about persons (e.g., criminal histories) with whom they have contact.  This helps eliminate airtime use with requests for information from dispatchers, and also increased police ability to proactively run license plate checks on automobiles without having to stop them.

Compstat and CAM: Crime Mapping and Crime Analysis  Compstat is based on four principles designed to make police organizations rational and responsive to management direction:  (1) accurate and timely information made available at all levels of the organization;  (2) the selection of the most effective tactics for specific problems;  (3) rapid, focused deployment of people and resources to implement those tactics; and  (4) relentless follow-up and assessment to learn what happened and make subsequent tactical assessments if necessary

Early Intervention Systems  Early warning (EW) systems, or early intervention (EI) systems as they are currently labeled, are behavior monitoring devices used by police administrators as a means of identifying officers who display symptoms of frequent misconduct, and intervene soon after such symptoms appear with some form of intervention (e.g., counseling, retraining, etc.).  This type of proactive intervention in officer careers has the potential to prevent a substantial amount of police misconduct, especially as research has found that a small number of officers are responsible for a disproportionate amount of misconduct (Harris, 2006).

Hot Spots Policing  Crime Analysis of Calls for service and patterns of crime  Link Crime analysis to police deployment  Focus on locations with the most serious problems  Identify patterns of criminal activities over time and by location  Issue: coercive vs. proactive police strategies( values-oriented policing)

Operation Ceasefire in Boston  David Kennedy’s unique “pulling levers” strategy identified as model program by the DOJ. Carrots vs Sticks  Assumption: Gang members are the primary cause of violence in Boston  Intervention: Make gangs accountable by targeting gang leaders and members for aggressive prosecution when a violent crime occurs in their territory

Other Boston Police Initiatives  Warrantless searches for guns in targeted high risk locations  Gun Buy-back Programs