Carbon and Organic Chemistry The unique properties of an organic compound depend not only on its carbon skeleton but also on the atoms attached to the skeleton These atoms are called functional groups Some common functional groups include: Hydroxyl group Carbonyl group Amino group Carboxyl group Found in alcohols and sugars Found in amino acids and urea in urine (from protein breakdown) Found in amino acids, fatty acids, and some vitamins Found in sugars

Table 2.3a Six Functional Groups Commonly Attached to Carbon Atoms

Table 2.3b Six Functional Groups Commonly Attached to Carbon Atoms

Macromolecules *most macromolecules are polymers polymer monomer The making and breaking of polymers: Dehydration reaction: Hydrolysis: 4

MAJOR TYPES OF PROTEINS Proteins perform most of the tasks the body needs to function They are the most elaborate of life’s molecules MAJOR TYPES OF PROTEINS Structural Proteins Storage Proteins Contractile Proteins Transport Proteins Enzymes 5

Proteins as Polymers Cells link amino acids together by dehydration synthesis Carboxyl group Amino group The resulting bond between them is called a peptide bond Side group Side group Amino acid Amino acid Dehydration synthesis Side group Side group Peptide bond 6

Amino Acids

Protein Structure Primary structure 1 5 The arrangement of amino acids makes each protein different 15 10 35 30 25 20 45 Primary structure 40 50 55 65 60 70 The specific sequence of amino acids in a protein 85 80 75 95 100 90 110 115 105 120 125 129 Amino acid 8

Protein Structure A slight change in the primary structure of a protein affects its ability to function The substitution of one amino acid for another in hemoglobin causes sickle-cell disease 7. . . 146 2 3 6 1 4 5 (a) Normal red blood cell Normal hemoglobin 1 2 7. . . 146 3 6 4 5 (b) Sickled red blood cell Sickle-cell hemoglobin 9

Macromolecules Secondary structure Tertiary structure

Macromolecules Quaternary structure How does this all happen? ●Spontaneously ●Chaperonins

Nucleic Acids ● Include DNA and RNA Information storage molecules They provide the directions for building proteins Gene DNA RNA Protein Amino acid Nucleic acids

Nucleic Acids ●Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides Nitrogenous base (A,G,C, or T) Phosphate group Thymine (T) Sugar (deoxyribose) Base DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid RNA, ribonucleic acid Nitrogenous base A, G, C, or U Uracil U Phosphate group Sugar ribose

Nucleic Acids ●Each nucleotide has one of the following bases:

Nucleic Acids ●Nucleic Acid Structure Sugar-phosphate backbone Bases pair Nucleotide Hydrogen bond Bases a DNA strand polynucleotide b Double helix two polynucleotide strands

Nucleic Acids ●Nucleic Acid Structure

Nucleic Acids DNA Structure

Carbohydrates Carbohydrates include Small sugar molecules in soft drinks Monosaccharides & Disaccharides Long starch molecules in pasta and potatoes Polysaccharides 18

Monosaccharides Monosaccharides are simple sugars Glucose, found in sports drinks Fructose, found in fruit Honey contains both glucose and fructose Glucose Fructose Isomers 19

Monosaccharides In aqueous solutions, monosaccharides form rings (b) Abbreviated ring structure 20

Disaccharides A disaccharide is a double sugar Disaccharides are joined by the process of dehydration synthesis Glucose Glucose Maltose 21

Disaccharides The most common disaccharide is sucrose, common table sugar It consists of a glucose linked to a fructose Sucrose is extracted from sugar cane and the roots of sugar beets 22

Polysaccharides They are long chains of sugar units They are polymers of monosaccharides Glucose monomer Starch granules in potato tuber cells (a) Starch Glycogen Granules In muscle tissue (b) Glycogen Cellulose fibril in a plant cell wall Cellulose molecules (c) Cellulose 23

Lipids ●Lipids are: Large biological molecules that do not include polymers. Hydrophobic, unable to mix with water. Oil (hydrophobic) Vinegar (hydrophilic)

Lipids ●FATS ● Dietary fat consists largely of the molecule triglyceride A combination of glycerol and three fatty acids Fatty acid Glycerol (a) A dehydration reaction linking a fatty acid to glycerol (b) A fat molecule with a glycerol “head” and three energy-rich hydrocarbon fatty acid “tails”

Lipids (Fats) ●Unsaturated fatty acids Have less than the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons ●Saturated fatty acids Have the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons

Lipids (Fats) Saturated Fats TYPES OF FATS Unsaturated Fats Margarine Plant oils Trans fats Omega-3 fats INGREDIENTS: SOYBEAN OIL, FULLY HYDROGENATED COTTONSEED OIL, PARTIALLY HYDROGENATED COTTONSEED OIL AND SOYBEAN OILS, MONO AND DIGLYCERIDES, TBHO AND CITRIC ACID ANTIOXIDANTS

Lipids Phospholipids Steroids

Lipids ●STEROIDS Steroids are very different from fats in structure and function. Cholesterol Testosterone A type of estrogen

Biological Molecules