Guidelines for Making Reading-Writing Conections Timothy Shanahan University of Illinois at Chicago shanahan@uic.edu www.shanahanonliteracy.com

Writing: The Neglected “R” Of the “3 Rs,” writing has been accorded the least attention Notion has been that reading is a widely needed skill, but that writing is an elite skill The National Reading Panel did not examine writing research (though it considered reviewing it) Writing: The Neglected “R”

According to the National Commission on Writing… More than 90% of mid-career professionals indicate that writing is important in their work Writing is essential for success in higher education, yet more than 50% of college freshmen have serious writing problems Fewer than 30% of elementary and high school students meet NAEP’s writing proficiency standards According to the National Commission on Writing…

National Assessment 4 16% 60% 23% 1% 8 56% 27% 12 22% 55% Grade Below Basic Proficient Advanced 4 16% 60% 23% 1% 8 56% 27% 12 22% 55%

Students can write, but they cannot produce writing at high levels of skill, maturity, and sophistication Few students can produce precise, engaging, and coherent prose Fewer than a quarter can write convincing, elaborated responses with compelling language According to NAEP…

Reading-Writing Relationships Given the high profile of reading, writing must be considered relative reading Writing and reading depend on a common core of knowledge Writing requires deeper processing than reading But how can reading and writing be best combined for efficiency and effectiveness? Reading-Writing Relationships

Shanahan, T. (2008). Relations among oral language, reading, and writing development. In C. A. MacArthur, S. Graham, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Handbook of Writing Research (pp. 171- 186). New York: Guilford Press. Tierney, R. J., & Shanahan, T. (1991). Research on the reading-writing relationship: Interactions, transactions, and outcomes. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research (pp. 246-280). New York: Longman. Research Sources

Principle 1: Teach both reading and writing Statistical analyses show that the relationships between reading and writing are bidirectional To fully exploit the relationships, reading and writing BOTH must be taught Writing instruction and practice daily and of sufficient duration to develop quality writers Principle 1: Teach both reading and writing

To maximize literacy learning and to take advantage of the relationships across reading and writing it is essential to teach both reading and writing Since every school stresses reading my emphasis here is on adding writing to the equation The next several slides are about what we know about the teaching of writing

Status of writing instruction Unfortunately, writing is not being taught NCLB did not require it State curricula do include writing, but without much emphasis Efforts like Reading First downplayed the role of writing to “protect” the place of reading in the school day Status of writing instruction

Chicago Reading Framework 2-3 hours of daily instruction in literacy Word knowledge (phonological awareness, letters, phonics, sight vocabulary, spelling, meaning vocabulary) Fluency (accuracy, rate, expression) Reading comprehension (important information, genre/text structure, strategies) Writing Chicago Reading Framework

The P3A Writing Curriculum Purpose Writers need to write for a variety of purposes Process Writers need to engage successfully in the writing process Product Writers need to produce effective pieces of writing Audience Writers need to meet the needs of a variety of audiences

Best review of writing instruction research in the past 20 years: Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). A meta- analysis of writing instruction for adolescent students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 445–476. Research Review

Synthesized results from 123 experimental and quasi-experimental studies of writing instruction grades 4-12 Studies covered 11 different approaches to the teaching of writing Quality of writing was the outcome measure Graham & Perin Review

Approaches: Process-Writing Extended writing opportunities Writing for real audiences Engaging in the writing process High levels of student interaction and ownership Personalized individual feedback and (perhaps) some systematic instruction Approaches: Process-Writing

Explicit Instruction Grammar Sentence combining Strategy instruction Explicit systematic instruction of parts of speech and sentences Sentence combining Creating more sophisticated sentences through combination of sentences Strategy instruction Teaching strategies for planning, revising, editing Summarization Explicit systematic instruction in how to summarize text Text structure Explicit systematic instruction in text organization

Scaffolding Prewriting Inquiry Procedural facilitation Peer assistance Engaging students in prewriting practice Inquiry Helping students plan by analyzing data Procedural facilitation External prompts: guides, heuristics Peer assistance Having students work together Models Examinations of specific types of text Product goals Assigning writing goals Feedback Information is provided on the adequacy of the writing

Alternative Models Word Processing Extra writing Provides technological support for students to use computers for writing and revising Extra writing Increased opportunities to write or to engage in a particular type of writing

Graham & Perin Results d n Strategy instruction .82 20 Summarization 4 Peer assistance .75 7 Product goals .70 5 Word processing .55 18 Sentence combining .50 Prewriting .32 Process approach 21 Inquiry Models .25 6 Grammar -.43 11

Graham & Perin Results (cont.) Process writing had moderate effect on student writing in grades 4-6 when teachers received professional development, and no effects in grades 7-12 Though grammar instruction was not effective in any study, it was the control group treatment in all but one of the studies in this set Strategy instruction was effective across all grade levels, but biggest effects on struggling students Graham & Perin Results (cont.)

Graham & Perin Results (cont.) Impossible to draw meaningful conclusions on text structure instruction (too few students, results too varied, etc.) Inquiry studies were all done at grades 7-12 and had small-to-moderate effects All peer assistance studies had significant outcomes (grades 4-12) Lots of unexplained variability in size of effect for word processing Graham & Perin Results (cont.)

Graham & Perin Conclusions Many approaches have sizable and reliable impacts on students’ writing quality (strategy teaching most effective, but many other things work, too) Combinations might be best: explicitly teach writing strategies, involving students in peer guidance, using word processors, along with many of the other smaller-effects approaches might merit inclusion Graham & Perin Conclusions

Guideline 2: Begin early with both reading and writing Historically, instruction has treated reading as the enabling skill for writing National Early Literacy Panel (Pre-k and K) findings National Reading Panel (invented spelling) Role of oral language Guideline 2: Begin early with both reading and writing

Because it is possible to draw benefits from combining reading and writing early on, the emphasis here is on how to facilitate early writing The next several slides focus on how to engage even very young preschoolers in oral composition And on the importance of encouraging kids to write early (not just compose) through “invented spelling” The goal in these early years should be on fluency

Language-Experience Approach Shared experience with lots of discussion (opportunity to build knowledge and to enhance oral language) Children dictate sentences about the shared experience Teacher transcribes the text Teacher reads the text Children “read” along with the teacher Children copy and illustrate the story or article Language-Experience Approach

Invented spelling: Letter name sep taddebar bopy sek alls nubrs egliow fall grapo fes pan staps wel attept letl git scichtap adsavin ricet kd clic cidejches Invented spelling: Letter name

Invented spelling Stage 1: Precommunicative Spelling Scribbles, letter-like forms, letters, numbers to represent message May write from left-to-right, right-to-left, top-to-bottom, or randomly No understanding of phoneme-grapheme relationships May mix upper and lower case letters but preference is for upper case Invented spelling

Invented spelling Stage 2: Semiphonetic Spelling Shows awareness of the alphabetic principle, that letters represent sounds Uses abbreviated one, two, or three letter spellings to represent entire words Child uses letter-name strategy to represent sounds Invented spelling

Invented spelling Stage 3: Semiphonetic Spelling Represents all essential sound features Uses particular spellings for long and short vowels, plural and past tense markers, and other aspects of spelling Child chooses letters on basis of sound, but without regard for English letter sequences or other conventions Invented spelling

Invented spelling Stage 4: Transitional Spelling Uses basic spelling conventions Begins to use morphological and visual information along with sounds May include all appropriate letters but reverse some May use alternate spellings for the same sound in different words, but only partially understands the rules High percentage of accurate spellings Invented spelling

Invented spelling Stage 5: Correct Spelling Applies basic rules of the English spelling system Growing accuracy with silent consonants, double consonants before affixes Can recognize that a word doesn’t look right Spells irregular spelling patterns correctly Can spell a large number of words Invented spelling

Difficulties in processing text as a reader or writing sufficient amounts as a writer Fluency should be an early goal Peter Elbow’s work on turning off your editor (limit the amount of early editing) Writing marathons Erin’s piece Fluency instruction

Handwriting and spelling Research shows that young children’s writing quality, quantity, and motivation are limited by handwriting Some instruction in how to print or write cursive are beneficial to composition Spelling inventions are a useful process, but these inventions are based on student knowledge from reading, phonics, spelling instruction Handwriting and spelling

Guideline 3: Make reading-writing connections explicit Memory tends to be function-specific Teaching can help students to generalize or to apply in other settings To do this instruction should highlight models of clear connections between reading and writing And instruction should encourage reflection on reading-writing connections Guideline 3: Make reading-writing connections explicit

Text structure Writing imitating literary models Select text with strong structure or style (pattern books work great with younger children, more subtle—but still clear– structures for older students) Read text to students to students Discuss the pattern Provide a structural prompt or frame Group writing to start out Read/write similar texts (process talks) Text structure

“Whistle, Mary, whistle, And you shall have a cow “Whistle, Mary, whistle, And you shall have a cow.” “I can’t whistle, Mother, Because I don’t know how.” And you shall have a … Pattern writing

Whistle, Mary, Whistle frame “Whistle Mary, whistle, and you shall have a cow.” _______ ________, ________, verb name verb and you shall have a ______.” gift I can’t ________, _________, verb name 2 because I _________________ rhyme reason Whistle, Mary, Whistle frame

Structure Definition Key Words Description Time sequence Enumeration “list” of facts, characteristics, traits, or features Time sequence facts, events, processes, or concepts in temporal order on (date), not long after, now, as, before, after, when, finally Enumeration list of several descriptions, usually organized in some way to begin with, first, secondly, next, then, finally, most important, also, in fact, for instance, for example Cause and effect showing facts, events, concepts occur because of other facts, events or concepts because, since, therefore, consequently, as a result, this led to, so that, thus, if...then, accordingly Problem/ solution development of a problem (usually in form of cause and effect) and events that can interrupt this causal connection Comparison/ contrast likenesses or differences among facts, people, events, concepts however, but, as well as, on the other hand, not only... but also, either...or, while, although, unless, similarly, yet

Character Change Chart What is main character like at the beginning of the story? What is the main character like at the end of the story? How has he or she changed? Crisis Given this character change, what do you think the author wanted you to learn? ________ ________________________________________________________________________

Guideline 4: Emphasize content and process relationships. Reading and writing share a body of underlying knowledge (letter-sound relationships, vocabulary, text structures, grammar, dependence on world knowledge, etc.) Reading and writing also rely on a collection of cognitive processes (recall of prior knowledge, prediction, revision, etc. Guideline 4: Emphasize content and process relationships.

Similar content/processes Reading Decoding Vocabulary Text organization Reading fluency Previewing/Predicting Reviewing prior knowledge Revising interpretations Writing Spelling Vocabulary/diction Text organization Writing fluency Planning/Prewriting Reviewing prior knowledge Revising text Similar content/processes

Process similarities tend to be analogs (they are similar, but not really the same) Process talks across reading and writing can be useful Have students reflect on how reading and writing are similar Guide them to think about their writing experiences during reading and their reading experiences during writing Process talks

Guideline 5: Emphasize reader-writer connections Emphasis here is on communication Good reading instruction will foster author awareness Good writing instruction will foster sensitivity to the needs of an audience Guideline 5: Emphasize reader-writer connections

Author awareness Young children don’t know about authors By ages 5 or 6, readers construct an egocentric author, but can recognize common style across books By 12 or 13, readers recognize that authors have intent (and can do some low level text interpretation) Still later, readers learn to use the author as an interpretive construct (e.g., sourcing) Author awareness

Moffett’s Discourse Relations Reflection (diaries, logs, daybooks) Conversation (dialogues, notes, Twittering) Correspondence (letters, emails) Publication (reports, blogs, “books”) Moffett’s Discourse Relations

Guideline 5: Literacy must be learned across the curriculum Reading and writing differ in various content areas Texts from different fields different in content, structure, language, style, density, social nature of discourse Kids need opportunities to read different kinds of text Kids need opportunities to write different kinds of text Guideline 5: Literacy must be learned across the curriculum

Guideline 6: Provide explicit instruction Modeling Explicit explanation of what you are doing (what, how, when, why) Scaffolded practice Collaborative practice Individual/independent practice Guideline 6: Provide explicit instruction

When does story take place? August 27, 1935 Think Sheets: Ideas Section Directions: How does Lydia Grace show strength during her year away? While reading, answer the questions with evidence from the story. These questions will help you to use narrative elements (plot, characters, and setting) to understand the story. The narrative elements are highlighted to assist you. The first one is done for you. 1. Page 25 Setting Question Evidence When does story take place? August 27, 1935 Where does Uncle Jim ask Lydia to go? Grandma told us after supper that you want me to come to the city and live there until things get better. How do we know the family is facing tough times? Did she tell you that Papa had been out of work for a long time, and no one asks Mama to make dresses anymore?

How do we know Lydia Grace likes to garden? 2. Page 26 Characters Question Evidence How do we know Lydia Grace likes to garden? How does Lydia Grace feel about cooking? How does Lydia Grace feel about Grandma?

Setting Plot Character Graphic Organizer Directions: You have gathered evidence based on the narrative elements of The Gardener. Now it is time to plan. Select the 1 or 2 pieces of evidence for each of the elements below that you believe will help you to write an essay to explain how Lydia Grace showed her strength in her year away. You do not have to use complete sentences here. Setting Plot Character

Essay Writing Guidelines Extended Writing Directions: Use the evidence you selected for the graphic organizer on your planning page to write an essay responding to the question: How does Lydia Grace show her strength during her year away? You may continue writing on the next page. Essay Writing Guidelines Introduction: Tell what you are going to write about. Body: Tell what happened to Lydia Grace acted during her year away and how she reacted to these events. Reread to make sure your evidence is logically connected. Conclusion: Tell how you think Lydia Grace showed strength during her year away.

Some Useful Writing Resources Culham, R. 6+1 Traits of writing. New York: Scholastic. Fisher, D., & Frey, N. Scaffolded writing instruction. New York: Scholastic. Graham, S., et al. Best practices in writing instruction. New York: Guilford. Temple, C., et al. The beginnings of writing. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Some Useful Writing Resources

Timothy Shanahan University of Illinois at Chicago shanahan@uic Timothy Shanahan University of Illinois at Chicago shanahan@uic.edu www.shanahanonliteracy.com