Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Integrated Principles of Zoology, 15/e Cleveland P. Hickman, Jr. Allan LarsonDavid Eisenhour Integrated Principles of Zoology, 15/e Cleveland P. Hickman, Jr. Allan LarsonDavid Eisenhour 1-1

CHAPTER 1 Life: Biological Principles and the Science of Zoology 1-2

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1-4 Zoology: Zoology: The scientific study of animal life Exploration of the animal world is gained by actively applying important guiding principles to our investigations Exploration of the animal world is gained by actively applying important guiding principles to our investigations Exploration of the animal world depends critically on our questions, methods, and principles Exploration of the animal world depends critically on our questions, methods, and principles The Uses of Principles

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1-5 Principles of modern zoology come from: Principles of modern zoology come from: Laws of physics and chemistry Laws of physics and chemistry Scientific method Scientific method Because life shares a common evolutionary origin, principles learned from the study of one group often provide insight to other groups as well Because life shares a common evolutionary origin, principles learned from the study of one group often provide insight to other groups as well The Uses of Principles

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1-6 Fundamental Properties of Life Does Life Have Defining Properties? Does Life Have Defining Properties? What is life? What is life? No simple definition No simple definition The history of life shows extensive and ongoing change called evolution The history of life shows extensive and ongoing change called evolution Answer must be based on the common history of life on earth Answer must be based on the common history of life on earth

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1-7 Fundamental Properties of Life This common history can be traced backward through time from the diverse forms observed today and in the fossil record to their common ancestor that arose almost five billion years ago This common history can be traced backward through time from the diverse forms observed today and in the fossil record to their common ancestor that arose almost five billion years ago Life's history of descent with modification gives it an identity and continuity that separates it from the nonliving world Life's history of descent with modification gives it an identity and continuity that separates it from the nonliving world

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1-8 General Properties of Living Systems Chemical Uniqueness: Chemical Uniqueness: Living systems demonstrate a unique and complex molecular organization Small molecules are assembled into macromolecules: Small molecules are assembled into macromolecules: 1. Nucleic Acids 2. Proteins 3. Carbohydrates 4. Lipids

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1-9 General Properties of Living Systems Although living systems are composed of the same kinds of atoms obeying the same fundamental laws of chemistry as nonliving matter, the organizational structure of the macromolecules makes them unique Although living systems are composed of the same kinds of atoms obeying the same fundamental laws of chemistry as nonliving matter, the organizational structure of the macromolecules makes them unique

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display General Properties of Living Systems Complexity and Hierarchical Organization: Complexity and Hierarchical Organization: Living systems demonstrate a unique and complex hierarchical organization In living systems there exists a hierarchy of levels that includes: In living systems there exists a hierarchy of levels that includes:MacromoleculesCellsOrganismsPopulationsSpecies

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display General Properties of Living Systems Emergence: A appearance of new characteristics at a given level of organization Emergence: A appearance of new characteristics at a given level of organization These characteristics are called emergent properties These characteristics are called emergent properties Different levels of the biological hierarchy and their particular emergent properties are built by evolution Different levels of the biological hierarchy and their particular emergent properties are built by evolution

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display General Properties of Living Systems Reproduction: Reproduction: Living systems can reproduce themselves At each level of the biological hierarchy living forms reproduce to generate others like themselves: At each level of the biological hierarchy living forms reproduce to generate others like themselves: Genes replicate to produce new genes. Genes replicate to produce new genes. Cells divide producing new cells. Cells divide producing new cells. Organisms reproduce, sexually or asexually, to produce new organisms Organisms reproduce, sexually or asexually, to produce new organisms Populations fragment to produce new populations Populations fragment to produce new populations Species split to produce new species Species split to produce new species

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display General Properties of Living Systems Possession of a Genetic Program: Possession of a Genetic Program: A genetic program provides fidelity of inheritance Nucleic Acids: Encode structures of the protein molecules needed for organismal development and functioning Nucleic Acids: Encode structures of the protein molecules needed for organismal development and functioning DNA: Long, linear, chain of nucleotides DNA: Long, linear, chain of nucleotides Stores genetic information Stores genetic information Genetic Code: correspondence between base sequences in DNA and the sequence of amino acids in a protein Genetic Code: correspondence between base sequences in DNA and the sequence of amino acids in a protein

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display General Properties of Living Systems Metabolism: Metabolism: Living organisms maintain themselves by acquiring nutrients from their environments Metabolic processes include: Metabolic processes include: Digestion Digestion Energy production (Respiration) Energy production (Respiration) Synthesis of required molecules and structures by organisms Synthesis of required molecules and structures by organisms

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display General Properties of Living Systems Metabolism is an interaction of destructive (catabolic) and constructive (anabolic) reactions Metabolism is an interaction of destructive (catabolic) and constructive (anabolic) reactions The most fundamental anabolic and catabolic chemical processes used by living systems arose early in the evolutionary history of life The most fundamental anabolic and catabolic chemical processes used by living systems arose early in the evolutionary history of life

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display General Properties of Living Systems Development: Development: All organisms pass through a characteristic life cycle Development describes the characteristic changes that an organism undergoes from its origin to its final adult form Development describes the characteristic changes that an organism undergoes from its origin to its final adult form

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display General Properties of Living Systems Environmental Interaction: Environmental Interaction: All animals interact with their environments Ecology: The study of organismal interaction with an environment Ecology: The study of organismal interaction with an environment All organisms respond to environmental stimuli, a property called irritability All organisms respond to environmental stimuli, a property called irritability

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display General Properties of Living Systems Movement: Movement: Living systems and their parts show precise and controlled movements arising from within the system Living systems extract energy from their environments permitting the initiation of controlled movements Living systems extract energy from their environments permitting the initiation of controlled movements

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display General Properties of Living Systems Movements at the cellular level are required for: Movements at the cellular level are required for:ReproductionGrowth Responses to stimuli Development in multicellular organisms On a larger scale: On a larger scale: Entire populations or species may disperse from one geographic location to another over time Movement of nonliving matter: Movement of nonliving matter: Not precisely controlled by the moving objects Not precisely controlled by the moving objects Often involves external forces Often involves external forces

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Life Obeys Physical Laws First Law of Thermodynamics (Law of Conservation of energy): First Law of Thermodynamics (Law of Conservation of energy): Energy is neither created nor destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another All aspects of life require energy and its transformation All aspects of life require energy and its transformation

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Life Obeys Physical Laws Second Law of Thermodynamics Second Law of Thermodynamics Physical systems tend to proceed toward a state of greater disorder or entropy The ultimate fate of materials in cells is degradation and dissipation of their chemical The ultimate fate of materials in cells is degradation and dissipation of their chemical bond energy as heat Organismal complexity is achieved and Organismal complexity is achieved and maintained only by the perpetual use and dissipation of energy flowing into the biosphere from the sun

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Life Obeys Physical Laws The complex molecular organization in living cells is attained and maintained only as long as energy fuels the organization The complex molecular organization in living cells is attained and maintained only as long as energy fuels the organization Survival, growth, and reproduction of animals require energy that comes from breaking complex food molecules into simple organic waste Survival, growth, and reproduction of animals require energy that comes from breaking complex food molecules into simple organic waste

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Zoology As Part of Biology Animals originated in the Precambrian seas over 600 million years ago Animals originated in the Precambrian seas over 600 million years ago Characteristics of Animals: Characteristics of Animals: Eukaryotes: cells contain membrane- enclosed nuclei Eukaryotes: cells contain membrane- enclosed nuclei Heterotrophs: Not capable of manufacturing their own food and must rely on external food sources Heterotrophs: Not capable of manufacturing their own food and must rely on external food sources Cells lack cell walls Cells lack cell walls

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Principles of Science Nature of science: Nature of science: Science is guided by natural law Science is guided by natural law Science has to be explained by reference to natural law Science has to be explained by reference to natural law Science is testable against the observable world Science is testable against the observable world The conclusions of science are tentative and therefore not necessarily the final word The conclusions of science are tentative and therefore not necessarily the final word Science is falsifiable Science is falsifiable

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Principles of Science Scientific Method Scientific Method Hypothetic-deductive Method: Hypothetic-deductive Method: Scientific process of making a conjecture and then seeking empirical tests that potentially lead to its rejection

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Principles of Science Hypothesis: Hypothesis: Potential answers to questions being asked Potential answers to questions being asked Derived from prior observations of nature or from theories based on such observations Derived from prior observations of nature or from theories based on such observations Often constitute general statements about nature that may explain a large number of diverse observations Often constitute general statements about nature that may explain a large number of diverse observations If a hypothesis is very powerful in explaining a wide variety of related phenomena, it attains the level of a theory If a hypothesis is very powerful in explaining a wide variety of related phenomena, it attains the level of a theory

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Principles of Science The scientific method may be summarized as a series of steps: The scientific method may be summarized as a series of steps: 1.Observation 2.Question 3.Hypothesis Formation 4.Empirical Test Controlled Experiment Controlled Experiment Includes at least 2 groups Test Group Control Group 5.Conclusions Accept or reject your hypothesis 6.Publications

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Principles of Science Powerful theories that guide extensive research are called paradigms Powerful theories that guide extensive research are called paradigms The refutement and replacement of a paradigm is known as a scientific revolution The refutement and replacement of a paradigm is known as a scientific revolution Two major paradigms that guide zoological research: Two major paradigms that guide zoological research: 1.Darwin’s Theory of Evolution 2.The Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Principles of Science Experimental vs. Evolutionary Sciences Experimental vs. Evolutionary Sciences Experimental Sciences: Experimental Sciences: Seek to explain the proximate or immediate causes that underlie the functioning of biological systems at a particular time and place Seek to explain the proximate or immediate causes that underlie the functioning of biological systems at a particular time and place Goal: To explain how animals perform metabolic, physiological, and behavioral functions at the molecular, cellular, organismal, and populational levels Goal: To explain how animals perform metabolic, physiological, and behavioral functions at the molecular, cellular, organismal, and populational levels

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Principles of Science Example: Example: How is genetic information expressed to guide the synthesis of proteins? How is genetic information expressed to guide the synthesis of proteins? What signal causes cells to divide to produce new cells? What signal causes cells to divide to produce new cells? How does population density affect the physiology and behavior of organisms? How does population density affect the physiology and behavior of organisms? Experimental Sciences: Experimental Sciences: Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Endocrinology, Developmental Biology Community Ecology

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Principles of Science Evolutionary Sciences: Evolutionary Sciences: Seek to address questions of ultimate causes and rely largely on the use of the comparative method rather than experimentation Seek to address questions of ultimate causes and rely largely on the use of the comparative method rather than experimentation Ultimate Cause: The evolutionary factors responsible for the origin, state of being, or purpose of a biological system Ultimate Cause: The evolutionary factors responsible for the origin, state of being, or purpose of a biological system

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Principles of Science Molecular biology, cell biology, organismal structure, development, and ecology are compared among related species to identify patterns of variation Molecular biology, cell biology, organismal structure, development, and ecology are compared among related species to identify patterns of variation Patterns of similarity and dissimilarity are used to test hypotheses of relatedness Patterns of similarity and dissimilarity are used to test hypotheses of relatedness This information is used to reconstruct the evolutionary tree that relates to the species being studied This information is used to reconstruct the evolutionary tree that relates to the species being studied Rely on experimental sciences as a starting point Rely on experimental sciences as a starting point

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Principles of Science Example: Example: Why do different species of animals have different numbers of chromosomes in their cells? Why do different species of animals have different numbers of chromosomes in their cells? Why do some animal species maintain complex social systems, whereas other species have solitary individuals? Why do some animal species maintain complex social systems, whereas other species have solitary individuals? Evolutionary Sciences: Evolutionary Sciences: Comparative Biochemistry, Molecular Evolution, Comparative Cell Biology, Comparative Anatomy, Comparative Physiology, and Phylogenetic Systematics

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Theories of Evolution and Heredity Darwin’s Theory of Evolution Darwin’s Theory of Evolution Over 150 years old Over 150 years old Published in On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection in England in 1859 Published in On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection in England in 1859 Darwinism encompasses several different, although mutually compatible theories Darwinism encompasses several different, although mutually compatible theories

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Theories of Evolution and Heredity Ernst Mayr (Harvard University) proposed that Darwinism should be viewed as five major theories: Ernst Mayr (Harvard University) proposed that Darwinism should be viewed as five major theories: 1.Perpetual Change 2.Common Descent 3.Multiplication of the Species 4.Gradualism 5.Natural Selection

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Theories of Evolution and Heredity Perpetual Change Perpetual Change The living world is neither constant nor perpetually cycling, but is always changing The varying forms of organisms undergo measurable change across generations throughout time The varying forms of organisms undergo measurable change across generations throughout time Documented by the fossil record Documented by the fossil record Theory upon which the remaining 4 are based Theory upon which the remaining 4 are based

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Theories of Evolution and Heredity Common Descent Common Descent All forms of life descend from a common ancestor through a branching of lineages Life’s history has the structure of a branching evolutionary tree, known as a phylogeny Life’s history has the structure of a branching evolutionary tree, known as a phylogeny Serves as the basis for our taxonomic classification of animals Serves as the basis for our taxonomic classification of animals

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Theories of Evolution and Heredity Multiplication of Species Multiplication of Species The evolutionary process produces new species by splitting and transforming older ones

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Theories of Evolution and Heredity Gradualism Gradualism Large differences in anatomic traits that characterize disparate species originate through the accumulation of many small incremental changes over very long periods of time

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Theories of Evolution and Heredity Natural Selection Natural Selection A creative process that generates novel forms from the small individual variations that occur among organisms within a population Adaptation Adaptation An anatomical structure, physiological process, or behavioral trait that evolved by natural selection and improves an organism’s ability to survive and leave descendants

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Theories of Evolution and Heredity Darwin's theory of natural selection faced a major obstacle when first proposed because it lacked a successful theory of heredity Darwin's theory of natural selection faced a major obstacle when first proposed because it lacked a successful theory of heredity Neo-Darwinism Neo-Darwinism Describes Darwin’s theories as modified by incorporating the Chromosomal Theory Of Inheritance

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Theories of Evolution and Heredity Mendelian Heredity and the Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance Mendelian Heredity and the Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance Foundation for current studies of genetics and evolution in animals Genetic Approach Genetic Approach Mating populations of organisms that are true- breeding for alternative traits Mating populations of organisms that are true- breeding for alternative traits Following hereditary transmission of those traits to offspring Following hereditary transmission of those traits to offspring Contributions of Cell Biology Contributions of Cell Biology

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