Exercise Psychology Day 26

Mental Health Aspects of Exercise

Reduced state and trait anxiety due to the rhythmic-nature of exercise that stimulates an inhibitory or relaxation site in the brain stem of the CNS quieting cognitive activity associated with anxiety Reduced state and trait anxiety due to the rhythmic-nature of exercise that stimulates an inhibitory or relaxation site in the brain stem of the CNS quieting cognitive activity associated with anxiety Reduced depression due to the release of biogenic amines (e.g., serotonin and norephinephrine) in the brain and/or the social interaction and increased self-efficacy from exercise Reduced depression due to the release of biogenic amines (e.g., serotonin and norephinephrine) in the brain and/or the social interaction and increased self-efficacy from exercise Stress Reduction Effects of Exercise: Evidence and Mechanisms

Cognitive Benefits

Vascular Changes - increased cerebral blood flow Vascular Changes - increased cerebral blood flow Neurotrophic factors - increased neurotransmitter levels (e.g., dopamine) in the brain Neurotrophic factors - increased neurotransmitter levels (e.g., dopamine) in the brain Neural efficiency improved in the brain Neural efficiency improved in the brain Fluid intelligence (reasoning or problem solving) improved more than crystallized intelligence (accumulated knowledge, word recognition, and recall facts) Fluid intelligence (reasoning or problem solving) improved more than crystallized intelligence (accumulated knowledge, word recognition, and recall facts) Genetic basis for loss of cognitive functioning in the elderly suggests physical inactivity may be more detrimental to some than others Genetic basis for loss of cognitive functioning in the elderly suggests physical inactivity may be more detrimental to some than others

Goal Setting

Progressive standards of success (short- term goals) are set to increasingly approximate a desired standard of achievement (long-term goal) Progressive standards of success (short- term goals) are set to increasingly approximate a desired standard of achievement (long-term goal) Goal setting is not a one-size-fits-all endeavor Goal setting is not a one-size-fits-all endeavor Identify the client’s or athlete’s true wants and needsIdentify the client’s or athlete’s true wants and needs

Setting Goals for Feedback and Reinforcement Long-term (L-T) goal provides a meaningful pursuit for client/athlete Long-term (L-T) goal provides a meaningful pursuit for client/athlete Short-term (S-T) goals provide a strategy to achieve the long-term goal via attainable steps Short-term (S-T) goals provide a strategy to achieve the long-term goal via attainable steps Feedback is inherent in the completion of or progress toward the S-T goal and leads to the cognitive evaluation of success or failureFeedback is inherent in the completion of or progress toward the S-T goal and leads to the cognitive evaluation of success or failure An effective yet challenging goal is one that has about a 50% chance of successAn effective yet challenging goal is one that has about a 50% chance of success Successful achievement of S-T goals leads to behavioral reinforcement and the development of self-esteem and self-efficacySuccessful achievement of S-T goals leads to behavioral reinforcement and the development of self-esteem and self-efficacy

Types of Goals L-T and S-T goals vary for each client/athlete; higher or greater the L-T goal, more S-T incremental goals are needed to reach L-T goal L-T and S-T goals vary for each client/athlete; higher or greater the L-T goal, more S-T incremental goals are needed to reach L-T goal Types of Goals Based on Personal Control Types of Goals Based on Personal Control Process goals - client/athlete has a high degree of control overProcess goals - client/athlete has a high degree of control over Outcome goals - client/athlete has little control overOutcome goals - client/athlete has little control over Performance goals - fall in between in relation to controlPerformance goals - fall in between in relation to control

Process Goals Process Goals Effort given during a workout Effort given during a workout Exercise form and technique Exercise form and technique Positive attitude during workout Positive attitude during workout Important for maintenance of exercise behavior as success or goal accomplishment becomes increasingly difficult Important for maintenance of exercise behavior as success or goal accomplishment becomes increasingly difficult

Outcome Goals Progress or accomplishments gauged by social comparison (winning or beating an opponent) Progress or accomplishments gauged by social comparison (winning or beating an opponent) Can be highly arousing and induce great intensity for competitive individuals Can be highly arousing and induce great intensity for competitive individuals Probability of success is less for outcome goals compared to process goals as outcome of success is dependent on the performance of others and hence success can not be guaranteed Probability of success is less for outcome goals compared to process goals as outcome of success is dependent on the performance of others and hence success can not be guaranteed

Performance Goals More difficult to achieve than process goals More difficult to achieve than process goals Typically stated in terms of a self-referenced performance standard for the client/athlete Typically stated in terms of a self-referenced performance standard for the client/athlete Examples Examples Increasing strength or cardiorespiratory fitness levelIncreasing strength or cardiorespiratory fitness level Reducing percent body fatReducing percent body fat

Example of Setting a Performance Goal Average 3 to 5 recent 1-RM efforts in the bench press Average 3 to 5 recent 1-RM efforts in the bench press Calculate the difference between the average 1-RM and best 1-RM Calculate the difference between the average 1-RM and best 1-RM Add the difference to the best 1-RM to determine performance goal Add the difference to the best 1-RM to determine performance goal Recent 1-RM efforts in bench press were 140 lb, 145 lb, 150 lb Recent 1-RM efforts in bench press were 140 lb, 145 lb, 150 lb Average = 145 lb, best = 150 lb, difference = 5 lb, and new performance goal is 155 lb Average = 145 lb, best = 150 lb, difference = 5 lb, and new performance goal is 155 lb

Diversified Goal Setting Successful goal-setting program should include a diverse combination of short-term and long-term goals as well as process, outcome, and/or performance goals depending on the client/athlete Successful goal-setting program should include a diverse combination of short-term and long-term goals as well as process, outcome, and/or performance goals depending on the client/athlete During the consultation and assessment session with a new client/athlete, the trainer should maintain focus on the client’s or athlete’s desired goals and expected outcomes, and should develop a sound plan of action During the consultation and assessment session with a new client/athlete, the trainer should maintain focus on the client’s or athlete’s desired goals and expected outcomes, and should develop a sound plan of action

Goal Orientations Clients or athletes who gauge their performance or fitness improvement on the basis of previous ability or fitness level are said to be tasked involved and process and performance goals would probably be best Clients or athletes who gauge their performance or fitness improvement on the basis of previous ability or fitness level are said to be tasked involved and process and performance goals would probably be best Clients or athletes who gauge their performance or fitness improvement on comparison to the performance of one or more others are said to be ego-involved or other-referenced and process and outcome goals would probably be best Clients or athletes who gauge their performance or fitness improvement on comparison to the performance of one or more others are said to be ego-involved or other-referenced and process and outcome goals would probably be best

Tips for Effective Goal Setting Identify the client’s or athlete’s needs and desires and plan long-term goals Identify the client’s or athlete’s needs and desires and plan long-term goals Identify steps and short-terms goals that will lead to long-term achievement Identify steps and short-terms goals that will lead to long-term achievement Initial goals may best be process goals Initial goals may best be process goals Develop knowledge-based goals to compliment the performance and/or fitness goals Develop knowledge-based goals to compliment the performance and/or fitness goals Gradually add in more aggressive and measurable outcome and performance goals Gradually add in more aggressive and measurable outcome and performance goals Sent a time frame for the attainment of measurable outcome and performance goals Sent a time frame for the attainment of measurable outcome and performance goals

Tips for Effective Goal Setting Agree on a way to determine if the program is working toward the goals Agree on a way to determine if the program is working toward the goals After setting goals, make sure client believes that the goals are obtainable After setting goals, make sure client believes that the goals are obtainable Examine the goals to make sure the goals are compatible with one another Examine the goals to make sure the goals are compatible with one another Goals should be prioritized Goals should be prioritized Attach a time frame to each goal and note if a goal is not achieved by the assigned date Attach a time frame to each goal and note if a goal is not achieved by the assigned date Goals can and should be evaluated and adjusted at regular intervals Goals can and should be evaluated and adjusted at regular intervals

Motivation

Motivation Internal drive or neural process that arouses and directs behavior Internal drive or neural process that arouses and directs behavior Two dimensions of motivation Two dimensions of motivation Direction aspect that affects choices about time and commitment to exerciseDirection aspect that affects choices about time and commitment to exercise and other program goals Intensity with which choices are pursuedIntensity with which choices are pursued

Reinforcement Reinforcement increases the likelihood that a target or operant behavior will be repeated Reinforcement increases the likelihood that a target or operant behavior will be repeated Positive reinforcement gives something to a client/athlete in response to a behavior (e.g., social approval or congratulations on a good workout) Positive reinforcement gives something to a client/athlete in response to a behavior (e.g., social approval or congratulations on a good workout) Negative reinforcement takes something away from a client/athlete in response to a behavior Negative reinforcement takes something away from a client/athlete in response to a behavior (something aversive is removed or taken away to reward behavior such as not requiring clients or athletes to rack their plates after a good workout is completed)

Punishment Punishment decreases the likelihood that a target or operant behavior will be repeated Punishment decreases the likelihood that a target or operant behavior will be repeated Positive punishment involves presentation of something aversive such as criticism of a client for poor exercise techniques Positive punishment involves presentation of something aversive such as criticism of a client for poor exercise techniques Negative punishment involves removal of something in order to decrease the likelihood of a behavior such as removal of a privilege because of poor exercise techniques or failure to reach a goal Negative punishment involves removal of something in order to decrease the likelihood of a behavior such as removal of a privilege because of poor exercise techniques or failure to reach a goal

Self Determination or Internalization Intrinsic motivation - engaging in a behavior for the sense of enjoyment derived for it; true love for the experience of exercise a sense of fun during its performance Intrinsic motivation - engaging in a behavior for the sense of enjoyment derived for it; true love for the experience of exercise a sense of fun during its performance Extrinsic motivation - engaged in a behavior to achieve another goal or outcome; desire to be engaged in a behavior to get an external reward Extrinsic motivation - engaged in a behavior to achieve another goal or outcome; desire to be engaged in a behavior to get an external reward Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation lies on a continuum Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation lies on a continuum Intrinsic motivation typically results in greater exercise adherence Intrinsic motivation typically results in greater exercise adherence Important to know where a client or athlete falls on the continuum of motivation Important to know where a client or athlete falls on the continuum of motivation

Major Points on the Continuum from External to Internal Motivation of a Client/Athlete Amotivation - total lack of motivation Amotivation - total lack of motivation External regulation - engagement in a behavior to avoid punishment External regulation - engagement in a behavior to avoid punishment Introjected regulation - engagement in exercise as a means to a valued end Introjected regulation - engagement in exercise as a means to a valued end Identified regulation - follows trainer’s leadership because it is perceived as beneficial instead of personally initiating exercise behavior Identified regulation - follows trainer’s leadership because it is perceived as beneficial instead of personally initiating exercise behavior Integrated regulation - personally values exercise behavior, internalizes it, and freely engages in it; client/athlete and trainer agree on the goals of the client Integrated regulation - personally values exercise behavior, internalizes it, and freely engages in it; client/athlete and trainer agree on the goals of the client

Effect of Rewards External rewards can play a role in increasing intrinsic motivation and exercise adherence External rewards can play a role in increasing intrinsic motivation and exercise adherence Rewards can also reduce intrinsic motivation if they are “controlling” Rewards can also reduce intrinsic motivation if they are “controlling” Rewards can be viewed as “controlling” if the recipient perceives a contingency or connection between the behavior and the reward; removal of the reward may decrease the likelihood of the intended behavior occurring Rewards can be viewed as “controlling” if the recipient perceives a contingency or connection between the behavior and the reward; removal of the reward may decrease the likelihood of the intended behavior occurring

When to Intervene with Motivational Efforts The transtheoretical model helps identify the stage of readiness for exercise participation The transtheoretical model helps identify the stage of readiness for exercise participation By identifying a client’s or athlete’s stage of readiness, the trainer can apply the appropriate processes for change or interventions in order to move the client or athlete to the next level with the ultimate goals of action and maintenance By identifying a client’s or athlete’s stage of readiness, the trainer can apply the appropriate processes for change or interventions in order to move the client or athlete to the next level with the ultimate goals of action and maintenance

Stage of Readiness of a Client or Athlete Precontemplation - no thought or intention of becoming physically active Precontemplation - no thought or intention of becoming physically active Contemplation - thinks about and intends to become physically active; not physically active yet Contemplation - thinks about and intends to become physically active; not physically active yet Preparation - accumulates 30 minutes of moderate- intensity physical activity one day per week Preparation - accumulates 30 minutes of moderate- intensity physical activity one day per week Action - accumulates 30 minutes of moderate- intensity physical activity five or more days per week, but has done so for less than six months Action - accumulates 30 minutes of moderate- intensity physical activity five or more days per week, but has done so for less than six months Maintenance - accumulates 30 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity five or more days per week for more than six months Maintenance - accumulates 30 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity five or more days per week for more than six months

Self-Efficacy: Building Confidence Performance accomplishments or successful performance of a behavior Performance accomplishments or successful performance of a behavior Modeling effects or observing others perform a target behavior enhances imitative behavior Modeling effects or observing others perform a target behavior enhances imitative behavior Verbal persuasion from a respected source Verbal persuasion from a respected source Before or during exercise physiological arousal/self-belief can increase self-efficacy whereas anxiety/disbelief can decrease self- efficacy Before or during exercise physiological arousal/self-belief can increase self-efficacy whereas anxiety/disbelief can decrease self- efficacy Achieving success has more impact than anything else on raising self-efficacy Achieving success has more impact than anything else on raising self-efficacy

Methods to Motivate a Client

Minimizing Procrastination Almost everyone believes health and fitness are desirable attributes, but only a small percentage of the population commits to and maintains a healthy, exercise lifestyle Almost everyone believes health and fitness are desirable attributes, but only a small percentage of the population commits to and maintains a healthy, exercise lifestyle Procrastination may occur if a client/athlete believes that there are too many options in diets, exercises, devices, training methods, etc Procrastination may occur if a client/athlete believes that there are too many options in diets, exercises, devices, training methods, etc Trainers need to provide a decisive leadership role through the many options so that a client/athlete is not left in a frozen or indecisive state trying to decide in the perceived pain outweighs the potential benefits Trainers need to provide a decisive leadership role through the many options so that a client/athlete is not left in a frozen or indecisive state trying to decide in the perceived pain outweighs the potential benefits

Identifying False Beliefs Because of the many ‘quick fixes’ positioned as solutions, clients/athletes may have allowed false beliefs and information into their belief system Because of the many ‘quick fixes’ positioned as solutions, clients/athletes may have allowed false beliefs and information into their belief system False beliefs and information need to be eliminated before a trainer can install new empowering beliefs and information False beliefs and information need to be eliminated before a trainer can install new empowering beliefs and information An effective line of communication between the trainer and client/athlete must be established through which education and reasoning can be effectively communicated and instilled An effective line of communication between the trainer and client/athlete must be established through which education and reasoning can be effectively communicated and instilled

Identifying and Modifying Self Talk ‘His or Her Internal Voice’ Positive self talk can be very motivating Positive self talk can be very motivating Negative self talk makes it almost impossible for a client/athlete to accept even the most positively directed affirmations Negative self talk makes it almost impossible for a client/athlete to accept even the most positively directed affirmations Positive affirmations will be more effective if the client/athlete changes the negative Positive affirmations will be more effective if the client/athlete changes the negative self-talk first

Modifying Self Talk Ask client/athlete to notice and think about the types of his/her self-talk self talk during the day Ask client/athlete to notice and think about the types of his/her self-talk self talk during the day Ask the client/athlete to identify his/her self talk before and during training sessions Ask the client/athlete to identify his/her self talk before and during training sessions Have client/athlete write down negative self talk on the left side of a piece of paper and on the right side how the self talk could be changed to be supportive or motivating instead Have client/athlete write down negative self talk on the left side of a piece of paper and on the right side how the self talk could be changed to be supportive or motivating instead Have client recite and rehearse the new, positive affirmations Have client recite and rehearse the new, positive affirmations External encouragement will be more effective if the client/athlete changes his/her self-talk first External encouragement will be more effective if the client/athlete changes his/her self-talk first

Motivational Strategies Define your goals Define your goals Set realistic goals Set realistic goals Exercise with a group Exercise with a group Exercise with a buddy Exercise with a buddy Recruit the support of significant others Recruit the support of significant others Associate with other exercisers Associate with other exercisers Schedule a definite time and place for exercise Schedule a definite time and place for exercise Build on successful experiences Build on successful experiences Exercise to music Exercise to music Participate in a variety of activities Participate in a variety of activities Keep a progress chart or daily log Keep a progress chart or daily log

Other Psychological Tools for Performance Enhancement

Mental Imagery A cognitive psychological skill in which the client/athlete uses all of the senses to create a mental experience of the performance A cognitive psychological skill in which the client/athlete uses all of the senses to create a mental experience of the performance The client/athlete stimulates reality by mentally rehearsing a movement and/or imagining visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory, and even exertional cues The client/athlete stimulates reality by mentally rehearsing a movement and/or imagining visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory, and even exertional cues

Hypnosis An induced state of hyper-suggestibility An induced state of hyper-suggestibility Positive suggestions relating to a client’s or athlete’s performance potential are planted in the subconscious mind Positive suggestions relating to a client’s or athlete’s performance potential are planted in the subconscious mind

Systematic Desensitization A technique that helps a client/athlete initially confront or reduce fears, which may have arisen from an association of previously neutral stimuli with a stressful event(s) A technique that helps a client/athlete initially confront or reduce fears, which may have arisen from an association of previously neutral stimuli with a stressful event(s) Involves counter-conditioning in which an athlete replaces a fear response to various cues with a relaxation response Involves counter-conditioning in which an athlete replaces a fear response to various cues with a relaxation response

Physical Relaxation Techniques Diaphragmatic breathing - involves belly breathing which focuses on breath (a controllable aspect of physiology) to clear the mind and therefore increase attentional capacity Diaphragmatic breathing - involves belly breathing which focuses on breath (a controllable aspect of physiology) to clear the mind and therefore increase attentional capacity

Physical Relaxation Techniques Progressive muscular relaxation - a somatopsychic technique by which psychological and physical arousal are Progressive muscular relaxation - a somatopsychic technique by which psychological and physical arousal are self-regulated through the control of muscular tension; involves performance of a series of alternate muscular tensing and relaxing phases in which the individual becomes aware of somatic tension and learns to control it

Physical Relaxation Techniques Autogenic training - an attentional state that focuses on the sense of warmth and heaviness of a particular limb or muscle group shifting autonomic neural processes from sympathetic dominance to parasympathetic dominance Autogenic training - an attentional state that focuses on the sense of warmth and heaviness of a particular limb or muscle group shifting autonomic neural processes from sympathetic dominance to parasympathetic dominance

References Earle and Baechle - Chapter 8 Earle and Baechle - Chapter 8 Course Reader - Section 32 Course Reader - Section 32

QUESTIONS? COMMENTS?

Identifying and Modifying Self Talk