English-medium instruction in higher education in China: Two case studies Agnes Lam, The University of Hong Kong Zhongshe Lu, Tsinghua University Yi ’ an Wu, Beijing Foreign Studies University

Outline Introduction Language policy in multilingual China The English curriculum in China Case study 1: Tsinghua University Case study 2: Beijing Foreign Studies University Issues and alternatives Conclusion

Multilingual China Background: People ’ s Republic of China (PRC) established in 1949 Area: 10 million square kilometres Population on the mainland: 1,265,830,000 Population in Greater China: 1.3 billion 1 in 5 people on earth is Chinese A multilingual and multidialectal country: National language: Chinese The majority ethnic group: The Han Chinese 55 minority ethnic groups

The Han Chinese Two main dialect groups: Northern Chinese dialects: 7 sub-groups Southern Chinese dialects: 6 sub-groups (Huang, 1987, pp ) Standard spoken Chinese from the 1950s: Putonghua (Common Language) Standard written Chinese from the 1920s: Baihuawen (Plain Writing) Writing script: about 3,500 years old

The ethnic minorities 55 officially recognized minority groups 106,430,000 people (8.4% of the total population in Greater China) Live in a widespread area of about 64% of the total area of China 80 to 120 languages used among them 24 minority groups – still without an officially recognized writing script

The implicit trilingual model in China The Han Chinese: Policy: Putonghua & English In reality: Putonghua, English & often another Chinese dialect The minorities: Policy from around 1991: Chinese & the learner ’ s minority language In reality: Putonghua, English (?), a local Chinese dialect (?) & a minority language (?) (Lam, 2006)

English in China since 1949 Before the Cultural Revolution: 1. The interlude with Russian (Early 1950s) 2. The back-to-English movement ( ) During the Cultural Revolution: 3. Repudiation of foreign learning ( ) 4. English for renewing ties with the West ( ) After the Cultural Revolution: 5. English for modernization ( ) 6. English for international stature (From 1991)

From English majors to all learners 1949 – Beijing Foreign Language Institute established in Beijing 1960 – Beijing Foreign Language School taught English from Primary 3 as a pilot scheme; (14 such schools by 1965) – Syllabus for English majors defined Early 1980s – Focus on the College English syllabus for non-English majors Early 1990s – Focus on the secondary school English curriculum From 2001 – English to be taught fr. Primary 3

The current school curriculum 9 bands in the new English curriculum at school (12 years). To attain : Band 2 – by the end of Primary 6 Band 5 – by the end of Junior Sec 3 Band 7 – by the end of Senior Sec 3 (Lam, 2005, p. 191; Wang & Lam, 2006)

English for non-English majors at university Ministry of Education, 2001: Each higher education institution should have 5 to 10% of courses taught in a foreign language by Institutions which cannot do so could use materials in the foreign language initially and teach in Chinese. Ministry of Education, 2004: 3 levels in teaching, flexible target competence: Band 7 entrants: basic requirements Band 8 entrants: more advanced courses Band 9 entrants: even more advanced courses

English for English majors at university Ministry of Education, 2000: English skills (e.g., listening) English knowledge (e.g., English linguistics) Related knowledge of a profession such as foreign relations, trade, law, management, journalism, education, technology, culture, military affairs (Lam, 2005, p. 192)

Two case studies Tsinghua University: first established in 1911 as a school to prepare students to be sent by the Chinese government to the United States. Now, one of the most renowned universities in China. Beijing Foreign Studies University (BFSU): first established in Yanan in 1941 to train interpreters and translators. In 1949, it relocated to Beijing.

Tsinghua: Institutional vision 1925 – Tsinghua was a comprehensive university with 4 schools in literature, law, sciences and engineering – it was reshaped to focus on engineering From 1978 – sciences, economics and management were established. By 2005, the university consisted of 55 departments organized into 14 schools. There are also 2 institutes. Tsinghua is fast developing into a comprehensive university.

Tsinghua: Students and teachers Total in Tsinghua: 30,000 students & 2,877 teachers In the Dept. of Foreign Languages & Literatures: Annual intake (2005): English majors: 60 undergrad, 20 MA, 9 PhD students Japanese majors: 20 undergrad & 5 MA students Other non-majors (English, Japanese, Russian, German & French) : More than 10,000 students Teachers: 98 Chinese teachers 14 foreign teachers (12.5%)

Tsinghua: College English for non- English majors Year 1 – Basic English (4 hours each week for 18 weeks each semester for 2 semesters = 144 contact hours) Year 2 to Year 4 – Take an elective each semester up to a maximum of 6 electives. (Each elective is 2 hours each week for 18 weeks = 36 contact hours.) Minimum: 2 elective courses (72 hours) Maximum: 6 elective courses (216 hours)

Tsinghua: Electives for non-English majors 3 types of courses: To enhance language skills: e.g., Advanced speaking, Interpreting To enhance language use/application: e.g., Scientific English, English in workplaces To enhance knowledge of English: e.g., American culture & society, Famous speeches in English

Tsinghua: Medium of instruction Foreign language programmes: The target foreign language is used. Other courses teaching content in other departments: By 2004, 40 courses were taught in English, sometimes in joint programmes offered in collaboration with universities outside China. The first such course was offered in 1988 in Structural Mechanics. 32 of these courses used materials only in English.

Tsinghua: English for Specific Purposes These courses in the home departments taught by non-foreign language specialists are known as English for Specific Purposes (ESP) courses. But – students claim they learn nothing much except terminology in such ESP courses teachers do not get learning effectiveness or evaluations commensurate with their efforts.

BFSU: Institutional vision To transform itself into a comprehensive university of humanities and social sciences with special expertise in foreign languages, offering multilingual, multidisciplinary, and multi-level education. Among its graduates, 350 have served as ambassadors and 600 as consuls. Almost all the translators and simultaneous interpreters from China working for the United Nations graduated from BFSU. (Chen, 2001)

BFSU: Students and teachers Students: 5,222 Chinese students About 800 foreign students (to learn Chinese language and culture) (13.3%) Teachers: 576 Chinese teachers About 120 foreign teachers (17.3%)

BFSU: Programmes 53 Bachelor of Arts programmes: 2 Chinese programmes (Chinese as a Foreign Language, Chinese language & literature) 42 foreign language programmes (8 of them to start only from September 2007) 9 non-language programmes (e.g., international relations, law, finance) 15 MA & 9 PhD programmes – all in language and literary studies, except for 2 MA programmes (diplomacy and law)

BFSU: Medium of instruction Language courses: Chinese programmes: Chinese is used Foreign language programmes: the target foreign language is used; Chinese is used occasionally in courses on translation and interpreting. Other courses teaching content: vary in the degree to which a foreign language is used in teaching.

BFSU: Language choice No explicit policy for non-language courses taught by non-language teachers. Factors affecting language choice include: The nature of the courses (e.g., Law of Criminal Procedures and Advanced Mathematics are taught in Chinese) The teachers ’ competence The students ’ proficiency Terminology is provided bilingually.

BFSU: English for Specific Purposes For students of the 9 non-language programmes (international relations, law etc.): Year 1 & Year 2: intensive training in General English Year 3 & Year 4: English for Specific Purposes (ESP) courses Content courses are introduced gradually.

Issues – Medium of instruction 1. Should English be used as a medium of instruction for teaching other subjects? 2. Are English for Specific Purposes (ESP) courses effective? 3. Who should teach ESP courses? For English majors and/or non-majors? At what proficiency level? Use a mode of bilingual education in addition?

Issues – General concerns 1. Why do many learners fail to function well in English after learning it for so long? 2. Should English be taught to all learners? 3. Should English be taught from primary school? 4. Should English be required for promotion to a higher post? 5. Will learners be less Chinese if English is given too much emphasis?

An alternative model 1. Allow minority learners to choose to study partly in a minority language in early primary. 2. Allow learners to choose to stop studying English at a certain level in the educational system. 3. Allow learners to choose to study another language (e.g., another foreign language or a minority language) instead of English. 4. Establish more foreign language institutions to develop more core bilingual personnel. 5. Promote intercultural understanding.

Conclusion 1. The multilingual & multidialectal circumstances in China are much more complex than is normally recognized; 1 in 12 is from the ethnic minorities. 2. The great number of learners to be taught poses an enormous challenge; 4.3 times the US population. 3. The teaching of English in higher education has to be considered in the context of changes in the learning circumstances in schools. 4. Intercultural issues need to be addressed in language teaching in China.

References (1) Chen, N-F. (2001). Message from the president. In Beijing Foreign Studies University (a brochure marking the 60th anniversary of the university) (p. 5). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Dong, Y. (2003). On the issue of “Foreign language learning should start from primary schools”: Status of primary English language education in Guangdong Province. Modern Foreign Languages 26 (1), English Team, Steering Committee for Foreign Language Teaching in Higher Education. (2000). Gaodeng xuexiao yingyu zhuanye yingyu jiaoxue dagang [Syllabus for English majors in higher education]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press & Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Gui, S. (1992). A challenge to “ Foreign language learning should start from primary schools ”. Foreign Language Teaching and Research 33(4), Higher Education Department, Ministry of Education, China. (2004). College English curriculum requirements. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

References (2) Hu, W. (2001). A matter of balance – reflections of China’s foreign language policy in education. Foreign Language Teaching and Research 33 (4), Lam, A. S. L. (2002). English in education in China: Policy changes and learners ’ experiences. World Englishes, 21(2), Lam, A. S. L. (2005). Language education in China: Policy and experience in China from Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Lam, A. S. L. (2006). Bilingual or multilingual education in China: Policy and learner experience. Manuscript submitted for publication. Ministry of Education, China. (2001). Guanyu jiaqiang gaodeng xuexiao benke jiaoxue gongzuo tigao jiaoxue zhiliang de ruogan yijian [Guidelines on Strengthening University Undergraduate Teaching and Raising Teaching Standards]. Official document issued by the Ministry of Education, China. Wang, W-F, & Lam, A. S. L. (2006). The English language curriculum for secondary school in China from Manuscript in preparation.

Thanks My co-authors Colleagues at Tsinghua University & Beijing Foreign Studies University, particularly Meisun Zhong for her comments on an early version of the BFSU case study Wenfeng Wang, my PhD student The conference organizers & participants The Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong SAR, China (Project no. HKU 7175/98H)