Work in the 21st Century Chapter 8 The Motivation to Work

Module 8.1: An Introduction to Motivation Central position of motivation in psychology Motivation concerns conditions responsible for variations in intensity, quality, & direction of ongoing behavior

Brief History of Motivation Theory in I-O Psychology First theories anchored motivation in notions of instincts (Freud) “Instinct” gradually replaced by terms like need, motive, & drive (Maslow) Behaviorist approach (Skinner) Field theory (Lewin)  Group dynamics

Metaphors For Motivation Person as machine People’s behaviors & actions are reflexive & involuntary, performed without conscious awareness Pushed by internal needs Pulled by environmental stimuli

Metaphors For Motivation (cont’d) Person as judge Individual seeks information about extent person & others perceived as responsible for positive & negative events Hypothesizes about foundation for events & actions of others Person as intentional Develops goals & plans PhotoDisc/Getty Images

Motivational Metaphors

Meaning & Importance of Motivation in the Workplace Motivation & performance Situational Constraints (Motivation x Ability) – = PERFORMANCE

Motivation & Work-Life Balance Investigates whether satisfaction one experiences at work is affected by satisfaction one experiences in non-work & vice versa

Motivation & Attitudes Relatively stable feelings or beliefs directed toward specific persons, groups, ideas, or jobs Attitudes include job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job involvement, which are covered in more detail in Chapter 9

Motivation & Personality Consistent relationships exist between personality characteristics & performance motivation Neuroticism negatively related to performance motivation Conscientiousness positively related to performance motivation

Module 8.2: Motivational Theories – Classic Approaches Person-as-machine theories Maslow’s need theory Internal mechanical theory All humans have basic set of needs that express themselves over life span of individual as internal “pushes” or drives

Maslow’s Need Theory (5 Levels) Physiological needs Basic needs like food & water Security needs Need to produce a secure environment Love or social needs Desire to be accepted by others Esteem needs Being respected for accomplishments or capabilities Self-actualization Desire to develop capabilities to fullest

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Dilbert’s View on Need Hierarchy Theory

Maslow’s Need Theory Employer needs to know at what need level individual worker is operating Group of workers may all be functioning at different need levels Fits person-as-machine metaphor

Variations on Maslow’s Theory Two-factor theory (Herzberg, 1966) 2 basic needs, not 5 Needs are independent (not hierarchical) 1) Hygiene needs Maslow’s physical & security needs 2) Motivator needs Maslow’s social, esteem, & self-actualization needs

Variations on Maslow’s Theory (cont'd) ERG theory (Alderfer, 1972) 3 basic needs, not 2 or 5 Levels: Existence (E) Relatedness (R) Growth (G) Has not garnered much support

Reinforcement Theory: An External Mechanical theory Behavior depends on 3 elements: stimulus, response, & reward Contingent reward Reward depends on response Intermittent & continuous rewards Intermittent rewards produce higher performance levels Martial Colomb/Getty Images

Person-as-Scientist Models Vroom’s VIE theory Valence: Strength of person’s preference for particular outcome. Instrumentality: Perceived relationship between performance & attainment of a certain outcome. Expectancy: Perceived relationship between effort and performance.

Scientist Models (cont'd) Dissonance theory Suggests that tension exists when individuals hold incompatible thoughts Assumes that individuals always seek some sense of “balance” & will direct their behavior toward seeking & maintaining that balance

Scientist Models: Equity Theory Equity Theory: Individuals look at world in terms of comparative inputs & outcomes Compare their inputs & outcomes to those of “comparison others” Figure 8.1 Mathematical Description of Equity Theory

Equity Theory of Employee Reactions to Inequitable Payment

Module 8.3: Modern Approaches to Work Motivation Person-as-Intentional Approach Goal-setting theory Notion of goal as a motivational force Distinction between goal acceptance & goal commitment Lawrence M. Sawyer/Getty Images

Figure 8.2: Diagram of Goal Theory

Goal-Setting Theory (cont'd) Feedback loop important between knowledge of results & intermediate stages Control theory Based on principle of feedback loop Assumes individuals compare a standard to an actual outcome & adjust their behavior to bring outcome into agreement with a standard

Relationships Among Needs, Motives, Goals, & Performance Figure 8.3 The Relationships among Needs, Motives, Goals, and Performance Source: Locke & Latham (1996).

Control Theories & the Concept of Self-Regulation Self-regulation is compatible with control theory Figure 8.4 Simple Control Systems Model Source: Taylor, Fisher, & Ilgen (1984)

Self-Efficacy in Modern Motivation Theory Self-Efficacy is a belief in one’s capacity to perform a specific task or reach a specific goal Developed & increased by: Mastery experiences Modeling Social persuasion Physiological states

Action Theory (Rubicon theory) Broad consideration of role of intention in motivated behavior & connection between intention & action Action phases in active goal pursuit Predecisional Postdecisional Actional Evaluative

Action Theory (cont'd) Action has 2 elements Action process Action structure Figure 8.5 The Action Process Source: Frese & Zapf (1994)

Common Themes in Modern Approaches to Motivation Intention plays key role in motivated behavior Concept of feedback critical in considering anything but the simplest act at one point in time Theory should include element of person-as-scientist Theory should include concept of self-assessment Some non-cognitive element in the “ultimate” motivation theory

Module 8.4: Practical Issues in Motivation Motivation can be measured Motivational trait questionnaire (MTQ) Measures 6 aspects of “general” motivation Desire to learn Mastery Other referenced goals Competitiveness Worry Emotionality

Table 8.3: Sample Items from the Motivational Trait Questionnaire

Cross-Cultural Issues in Motivation Hofstede’s cultural theory Cultures differ on 5 dimensions Collectivism/individualism Uncertainty avoidance Masculinity/femininity Power dimensions Long-term vs. short-term orientation Application to MTQ D. Normark/PhotoLink/Getty Images

Cross-Cultural Issues in Motivation (cont'd) Types of motivational practices employed by managers across all cultures Differential distribution of rewards Participation in goal setting & decision making Design & redesign of jobs & organizations Quality improvement

Generational Differences & Work Motivation Defined by group members who share birth years & significant life events e.g., Baby Boomers, Generation Xers, Generation Yers D. Berry/PhotoLink/Getty Images

Generational Differences (cont'd) Generation Xers vs. Baby Boomers -- Initial Research indicates that: Younger employees appear to be more “me” oriented Today’s workers value “pride in work” less than workers of 1974 Work is less important now than 25 years ago Work becomes less idealized as workers age

Motivational Interventions Contingent rewards Job Enrichment (Tied to 5 job characteristics) Skill variety Task identity Task significance Autonomy Task feedback

Motivational Interventions (cont'd) Productivity Measurement & Enhancement System (ProMES) Utilizes goal setting, rewards, & feedback to increase motivation & performance Evidence shows significant gains in productivity following use of ProMES

ProMES Steps for Implementation Forming a design team Identifying objectives Identifying indicators 4) Defining contingencies 5) Designing the feedback system 6) Giving & responding to feedback 7) Monitoring the system