Language & Nationalism in Europe Chapter 7 Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Luxembourg: The total coincidence of nations & speech communities?

Q: In what countries is German a majority language?

A: Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein Q: What are the minor exceptions in Germany and Austria?

Q: In what countries is German a majority language? A: Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein Q: What are the minor exceptions in Germany and Austria? A: Lusatia in E. Germany, where Lusatian (Sorbian) is spoken and Carinthia in S. Austria, where Slovene is spoken Q: What other countries use German?

Q: In what countries is German a majority language? A: Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein Q: What are the minor exceptions in Germany and Austria? A: Lusatia in E. Germany, where Lusatian (Sorbian) is spoken and Carinthia in S. Austria, where Slovene is spoken Q: What other countries use German? A: Switzerland & Luxembourg

Switzerland German is a majority language only in the German area, which is the largest region, and is diglossic (Swiss-German/High German) 4 national languages: German, French, Italian, Romansh Romansh is a minority language even in its own region, where German predominates Language does not play a major role in Swiss identity

Luxembourg Diglossia: Majority spoken language is Luxembourgish, which is close to German; German is also used for formal purposes, although Luxembourgish does have a written standard French is also used

The languages of the region German has a complex of dialects, often mutually incomprehensible Significant immigrant populations in the region include Turkish, Greek, Serbo-Croatian, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese Border zone enclaves: Danish in Germany; Slovene, Croatian, and Hungarian in Austria -- all of these groups have a single standard language and receive support from their respective countries

The languages of the region, cont’d. Sorbian has two written standard languages: Upper Sorbian (which is closest to Czech) and Lower Sorbian (which is closest to Polish) Sorbian has been under uninterrupted German control since Middle Ages Sorbs have received support from Czechs (less from Poles) and were protected under communism

The languages of the region, cont’d. N. Frisian in Germany is related to Frisian in Netherlands, but suffers from dialectal fragmentation and have 4 rival written standards Romansh has more than 6 rival standards (severe fragmentation) and is related to Ladin & Friulian in N. Italy Both Frisian & Romansh suffer fragmentation and lack an external country to promote their interests

German Most minority languages in contact with German are non-Germanic and clearly distinct; only Danish & N. Frisian are Germanic, but mutual comprehensibility with German is very low. German has many dialects, often mutually incomprehensible Dutch is closer to the contiguous dialects of German than many other German dialects The identity of German cannot be established on the basis of purely linguistic criteria

German linguistic identity Speakers of Luxembourgish, Swiss-German, & Low German feel standard German is separate, foreign Luxembourg has its own version of a written standard, but Swiss-German does not All German speakers consider their language to be “German” even though German dialects are more diverse than the separate languages of Scandinavia

German linguistic identity, cont’d. Austrians see themselves as German, too, though separate Austrian identity develops since 19th c and especially post-WWII There has never been a state uniting all German speakers –Kulturnation: nation united only by a common culture –Staatsnation: nation united by a state

German speakers constitute a Kulturnation -- but why?

“Given the high diversity of its language, and the group’s increasing cultural & political fragmentation, it is indeed surprising that it did not develop into a number of different ethnic groups speaking what would have been considered to be a number of different languages, which then with the modern development of a nation, would have become a number of different nations.”

Name that country! Only one area of continental W. Germanic speech became separate in both language and national identity -- what is it?

The Netherlands Only one area of continental W. Germanic speech became separate in both language and national identity -- what is it?

Other close relatives Frisian -- strong influence from Dutch, German, and Danish; dialectal fragmentation; consider themselves separate from German Switzerland -- Multilingual state does not use language as a unifying factor; Swiss-German also identify selves as Swiss; use of German is matter of convenience, not identity Luxembourg -- These people consider their language distinct & have negative feelings toward Germany

Germany & Austria 15th-17th c single standard language developed, including Germany & Austria German Empire of 1871 excluded Austria Never any serious attempt at a distinct Austrian language No desire for political unification with Germany But Austrians DO see a strong link between their identity as native speakers of German & Austrian identity

German in Germany German Empire & Wiemar Republic fostered loyalty to state & focused attention on language as a unifying factor; promoted linguistic purism Nazi regime & first state to politically unify all Germans Post-WWII divided Germany

German in Germany Immigration of ethnic Germans from E. Europe & former USSR creates tensions with citizens who see identity in terms of language GDR failed to build loyalty to state rather than culture, and political division did not result in linguistic division Overall, there is a strong link between German language and national identity