Chapter 7: Asking People About Themselves

Surveys [p122] Conducted through the use of a written questionnaire or interview Results are used to describe people’s opinions, attitudes, and preferences Methodology is descriptive and nonexperimental

Surveys often show correlations Correlational research assesses relationships among naturally occurring variables and provides a basis for making predictions

Response set: a potential problem [p123] People do not always provide truthful and accurate answers Response set: a tendency to respond to all questions from a particular perspective Social desirability response set leads the individual to answer in the most socially acceptable way. When are respondents most likely to lie? - Lack of trust in the researcher(s)

Sampling [p136] Refers to the procedures used to obtain a sample A population is composed of all individuals of interest to the researcher A sample is a subgroup of the population With proper sampling, we can estimate characteristics of the population A large sample size is better than a small one for determining characteristics in a population

Two basic techniques for sampling [p138] Probability sampling - Each member of the population has a specifiable probability of being chosen Nonprobability sampling - Unknown probability of any member being chosen

Probability sampling [pp138-139] Simple random sampling – each member of the population has an equal probability of being chosen Stratified random sampling – the population is divided into subgroups (strata) and random samples are taken from each strata (used when all members of the population can appear on a list) Cluster sampling – identify clusters and sample from these clusters (used when a list of members in a population is unavailable)

Nonprobability sampling [139-140] No guarantee that each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample Haphazard sampling/convenience sampling: occurs when the researcher selects individuals who are available and willing to respond to the survey Quota sampling – sample reflects the numerical composition of various subgroups in the population

Evaluating Samples [p142] Representativeness of the population Sampling frame: the actual population of individuals from which a sample will be drawn Response rate: the percentage of people in the sample who actually complete the survey Reasons for using convenience samples: easy access to participants

Survey methods [p132] Written questionnaire Mail surveys Quick and convenient Self-administered Best for highly personal or embarrassing topics Internet surveys Efficient, low-cost way to survey very large samples

Positive features of questionnaires Less costly than interviews Allows respondents to be completely anonymous Can be administered in person to groups or individuals Can be administered through the mail, on the Internet, or with other technologies

Negative features of questionnaires Understanding of the questions Motivation Response rates (mail surveys) People may misrepresent themselves Unanswered questions

Survey methods [p132] Personal interviews Face-to-face interviews Telephone interviews Focus group interviews

Face-to-face interviews Costly More control over how the survey is administered and how people interpret survey questions [p134]

Telephone interviews Brief surveys that can be completed efficiently and with greater access to the population [p134]

Focus group interviews Interview with a group of about 6-10 people brought together for 2-3 hours [p134]

Positive features of interviews Involves an interaction between people - Response rates higher than questionnaires People answer most, if not all, the questions Interviewer can clarify questions Interviewer can ask follow-up questions

Negative features of interviews Interviewer bias [p134] Show approval or disapproval of certain answers If there are several interviewers, each could possess different characteristics (e.g., attractiveness, age, ethnicity, etc.) Expectations could lead interviewers to “see what they are looking for” in the answers

Research Designs [ideas discussed on p135] Cross-sectional design: A sample is selected from one or more populations at one time Successive independent samples design: A series of cross-sectional surveys are taken over time

Noncomparable samples When different populations are sampled at different times, we don’t know if responses differ because of true changes over time, or because different populations were sampled

Research Designs [p135] Longitudinal design (panel study): The same sample of individuals completes the survey at different points in time

Constructing a Questionnaire “What Do You Think?”

What Do You Think?: Question Wording Is the Mississippi River longer or shorter than 500 (or 3000) miles?___________________ How long is it? __________________miles Is the population of Argentina greater or smaller than 2 (or 100) million?___________ What is the population?________________ The Mississippi River is 2,348 miles long. The population of Argentina is 36 million.

Important considerations when writing questions [p125] Simplicity Question wording: meaning must be clear and easy to understand

Problematic Survey Wording [p126] Leading questions Double-barreled questions Loaded questions Undefined terms Contrast questions Negative words in questions Yea-saying or nay-saying

Leading questions Provide an “anchor” of information that the respondent then considers before giving an answer The questions regarding the length of the Mississippi River and the population of Argentina are examples of leading questions.

Double-barreled question E.g. “Is it more important to you to learn the material or to get a good grade?” The question should be rephrased as two separate questions [p126]

Loaded question E.g. “Do you think pornography is disgusting?” Contains non-neutral or emotionally laden terms [p126]

Contrast questions A series of questions, such as “How much money did you make last year?” followed by “How much money did you donate to charity last year?” People made aware of a vast discrepancy between what they make and what they spend to help others may give biased answers on the second question.

Undefined terms E.g. “Should low-wage earners receive government assistance?” What level of income classifies as a low-wage earner? And what kind of government assistance?

Negative words in questions [p126] E.g. “Would you oppose not having multiple-choice questions on the next exam?” Using negative words can be confusing even to those with a high level of education

Yea-saying or nay-saying [p126] The respondent may employ a response set and agree to all questions, or disagree.

Steps in Preparing a Questionnaire Decide what information should be sought Decide on type of questionnaire to be used Write a first draft of the questionnaire Reexamine and revise the questionnaire after it is reviewed by experts Pretest the questionnaire (pilot study) Edit the questionnaire

Formatting the questionnaire [p131] Attractive and professional looking Free of spelling errors and neatly typed Questions and response alternatives should be easy to identify Consistency in scales used (don’t change from 5- to 4- to 7-point scales)

Tips for Ordering Questions Especially for mail surveys (normally low response rate): Ask the most interesting and important questions first Ask demographic questions last Especially for surveys dealing with sensitive topics: Start with the most general questions, and move to more specific questions for a given topic Filter questions: These questions direct respondents to the survey questions that apply directly to them

Responses to questions [127-8] Open-ended (free-response) questions allow greater flexibility in responses but are difficult to code Respondents are free to answer in any way they like Requires time to code responses; costly Some responses cannot be categorized Useful to find out what people are thinking and how people naturally view the world

Responses to questions [127-8] Closed-ended questions: Response alternatives are the same for everyone and easier to code but may not accurately describe individuals’ responses More structured approach Useful when the dimensions of the variable are well defined

Formats of rating scales [pp128-131] Simplest and most direct scale is five to seven response alternatives with the end-points on the scale labeled to define the extremes. Strongly agree _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ Strongly disagree

Formats of rating scales [pp128-131] Graphic rating scale Requires a mark along a continuous 100- millimeter line that is anchored with descriptions at each end Not very enjoyable Very enjoyable A ruler is used to measure the score on a scale that ranges from 0 to 100.

Formats of rating scales [pp128-131] Semantic differential scale Measures the meaning of concepts Respondents rate any concept on a series of bipolar adjectives using 7-point scales Good _____: _____: _____: _____: _____: _____: _____ Bad Strong _____: _____: _____: _____: _____: _____: _____ Weak

Formats of rating scales [pp128-131] Nonverbal scale for children Children may not understand other types of scales

Formats of rating scales [pp128-131] Labeling response alternatives Sometimes needed to clearly define the meaning of each alternative __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree

LAB: Writing Survey Questions What factors are important influences on a person’s choice of college?