Adolescence: Social and Emotional Development CHAPTER 12 Adolescence: Social and Emotional Development

Development of Identity: “Who Am I?” 2

Erikson and Identity Development Ego identity versus role diffusion Erikson’s fifth stage of psychosocial development Primary task of adolescence is to develop ego identity Sense of who they are and what they stand for Psychological moratorium Adolescents experiment with different roles, values, beliefs, and relationships. Undergo identity crisis in which they examine their values and make decisions about their life roles 3

Erikson and Identity Development (cont’d) Many adolescents join “IN” groups and fit in by imitating peers’ dress, speech, hairstyles Most resolve identity crisis and know what they stand for Those who don’t are intolerant of people who are different and follow people who adhere to convention

Identity Statuses Marcia (1991) theorized four identity statuses that represent four possible combinations of the dimensions of exploration and commitment that Erikson believed were important to identity. 1) Identity diffusion Have no commitments and don’t try to form them 2) Foreclosure Commitments based on identification with parents, teachers, or religious leaders 3) Moratorium Actively exploring alternatives in attempt to make a choice 4) Identity achievement Develop firm commitment In the Foreclosure status: Individuals make commitments without considering alternatives.

Table 12-1, p. 249

Development of Identity Statuses Before high school Identity diffusion or foreclosure During high school The movement is from diffusion and foreclosure to moratorium and achievement statuses During college Greatest gains in identity formation Moratorium identity status is common during college Most college seniors have a stronger sense of identity than first-year students as a result of resolving identity crisis

Ethnicity and Development of Identity If cultural values conflict between values of dominant culture and those of particular ethnic group, then the adolescent needs to sort out the values that are most meaningful to him or her and incorporate them into his/her identity Cultural heroes of adolescents from ethnic minority groups may be ignored. Scarcity of successful role models may be a problem, particularly for youth living in poverty Too much identification with dominant culture may lead to rejection from the minority group However, rejecting the dominant culture’s values for that of the minority group may limit opportunities for advancement in the larger society.

Ethnicity and Development of Identity (cont’d) Three stages in the development of ethnic identity are hypothesized 1) Unexamined ethnic identity Similar to diffusion or foreclosure 2) Ethnic identity search Some incident makes teen aware of ethnic identity and causes exploration 3) Achieved ethnic identity Involves a clear self-acceptance as a member of one’s ethnic group

Gender and Development of Identity Erikson Believed males and females begin identity formation in adolescence Females Relationships considered more important to identity formation Remain more likely to integrate occupational and family plans Males Occupational and ideological matters more important to identity formation Recent studies show Males and females are both concerned about occupational choices. Women who have uninterrupted careers, like men, tend to complete the task of identity achievement in late adolescence Women who are full-time homemakers or who defer employment until their children are in school more likely to develop a strong sense of personal identity after their children reach school age

Development of the Self-Concept Adolescents incorporate psychological characteristics and social relationships into self-descriptions. Adolescents’ self-perceptions become more complex than those of younger children. Adolescents add more categories to their self-description. Contradictions in self-description peak at about age 14 and then decline in later adolescence

Table 12-2, p. 251

Self-Esteem Self-esteem Declines as child progresses from middle childhood to about the age of 12 or 13 Boys fantasize about having physiques of warriors in video games Girls want to be thin Notion of ideal self may move to better reflect reality As adolescents develop better skills, they may grow less self-critical. Low self-esteem can have serious consequences. Depressed and suicidal teens Emotional support from parents and peers important The more highly regarded the teen feels, the more likely to regard him-/herself higher

Relationships with Parents and Peers

Relationships with Parents Mothers Teens spend more time with mothers, have more conflicts with them, and report them as being more supportive and knowing them better. Fathers Adverse relationships with fathers are often associated with depression in adolescents. Good relations with fathers contribute to adolescents’ psychological well-being. Even though teens spend less time with parents, they continue to maintain love, loyalty, and respect for them. Conflict greatest during puberty and declines in later adolescence

Relationships with Parents (cont’d) Conflict occurs between what parent thinks they should control such as curfews and chores versus what teenager thinks they should control. Mothers encourage teen to do homework and clean room Less conflict as teens get older; more compromise Little evidence to support generation gap between parents and teens; most teens are similar to parents with their value system Teens are not in constant state of rebellion against their parents

Parenting Styles Adolescents from authoritative homes (parents are willing to exert control and explain reasons for doing so) show more competent behavior than other groups of teenagers. More self-reliant Do better in school Have better mental health Show the lowest incidence of psychological problems and misconduct, including drug use

Friendships in Adolescence Teens have more friends than younger children. Tend to have one or two “best friends” and several good friends Spend many hours a day with them Texting, conversing, and IM-ing Teens more likely to stress acceptance, intimate self-disclosure, and mutual understanding stress loyalty and trustworthiness share with friends and less likely to compete with them

Friendships in Adolescence (cont’d) Teens and their friends typically similar in age and race Almost always same sex Romantic attachments increase but most still choose members of same sex as best friend Friends are alike in attitudes, educational aspirations, and grades drinking, drug use, and sexual activity Friendship contributes to positive self-concept and psychological adjustment. Teens with best friend has higher self-esteem than teens without

Friendships in Adolescence (cont’d) Females More likely to share secrets, personal problems, thoughts, and feelings to their friends Friendship networks are smaller and more exclusive More likely to engage in unstructured activities with friends such as listening to music Males More likely to disclose information about their sex lives Congregate in larger, less intimate groups Engage in more organized activities, games, and sports

Peer Groups Cliques Crowds Consist of 5 to 10 individuals who hang out together and share activities and confidences Crowds Larger groups who may or may not spend much time together and are identified by the activity or attitude of the group Common labels are jocks, brains, druggies, nerds Negatively labeled groups show higher levels of drug use, delinquency, and depression Adolescent peer group includes members of opposite sex.

Dating and Romantic Relationships Adolescents start dating or going out by the time they graduate high school. Heterosexual sequence for dating Putting oneself in situations where peers of opposite sex will be Group activities including opposite sex peers Group dating Traditional two-person dating Functions of dating Have fun, enhance prestige with one’s peers, relate positively to different people; preparation for adult courtship activities

Dating and Romantic Relationships (cont’d) Dating relationships short-lived in early adolescence Relationships more stable and committed in late adolescence 18-year-olds more likely than 15-year-olds to mention love, trust, and commitment when describing romantic relationships

Peer Influence Peer pressure fairly weak in early adolescence; peaks during mid adolescence; declines in late adolescence, after age 17 Parents and peers are usually complementary rather than competing influences. Teens more likely to conform to peer standards in matters of taste and style; more likely to agree with parents on moral principles and future educational and career goals Peer pressure tends to be positive and negative; may influence friend to not do “too well” in school

Peer Influence (cont’d) Adolescents who smoke, drink, use drugs, and engage in sexual activity often have friends who engage in those behaviors. Teens tend to have friends who are similar to themselves

Sexuality 26

Sexual Orientation Most teens have heterosexual orientation. Homosexuality or bisexuality Males with a homosexual orientation are referred to as gay Females with a homosexual orientation are referred to as lesbians Bisexual people are attracted to both males and females Savin-Williams and Diamond (2000, 2004; Savin-Williams, 2007) Found the development of sexual orientation in gay males and lesbians involves the following steps attraction to members of the same sex, self-labeling sexual contact with members of same sex eventual disclosure of sexual orientation

Sexual Orientation (cont’d) Disclosure usually occurs around age 18. But some people such as parents are never told “Coming out” refers to accepting one’s homosexual orientation and declaring it to others. Usually disclosed to intimate group first Gay adolescents oftentimes ostracized and rejected by family and friends Eventually most families accept adolescent is gay Suicide and depression rates are higher among gay youth than heterosexual youth.

Masturbation Masturbation Self-stimulation Most common sexual outlet during adolescence More common in males than females (Kinsey, 1948) May be due to stronger sex drive in boys, greater social constraints on girls, or both Inaccurate beliefs that masturbation is harmful and guilt about masturbation lessen the incidence of masturbation.

Male-Female Sexual Behavior Teens who date earlier are more likely to engage in sexual activity during high school. The younger the teen when sexual activity occurs, the less likely they are to use contraceptives, more likely to become pregnant Petting Used to express affection, satisfy curiosity, heighten sexual arousal, and reach orgasm while avoiding pregnancy and maintaining virginity Many adolescents don’t see petting as sex Girls more likely to be coerced into petting

Male-Female Sexual Behavior (cont’d) Incidence of oral sex increases with age 42% of girls ages 15 to 17 reported engaging in oral sex compared to 72% or girls aged 18 to 19 Used as a means of preventing pregnancy Between 40% and 50% of high school students have had sexual intercourse. Sexual involvement increases with age.

Effects of Puberty Hormonal changes of puberty partly responsible for onset of sexual activity In boys Testosterone linked to sexual behavior In girls Testosterone linked to sexual interest But social factors play a greater role sexual behavior in girls Development of secondary sex characteristics may make teen more sexually attractive. Early-maturing girls are more likely to have older friends, which may draw them into sexual relationships.

Parental Influences Teens with close relationships to their parents are less likely to initiate activity at an early age. Teens who communicate well with parents delay onset of sexual activity; if these youngsters do have intercourse, they are more likely to use birth control and have fewer sex partners

Peer Influences Good predictor of sexual activity is the sexual activity of a teen’s best friends. Main reason for sexual activity is peer pressure. Peers and media sources (TV shows, films, magazines, and the Internet) — not parents — serve as source of sex education

Teenage Pregnancy 9 in 10 adolescents who become pregnant do so accidentally and without committed partners. Most young women in developed nations defer pregnancy until after they have completed most or all of their education. Girls get pregnant because they have little information about how to address boys’ sexual advances they fail to use contraceptives, and younger teens have less access to contraceptive devices fewer than half use them reliably

Teen Pregnancy (cont’d) Causes for teen pregnancy Some girls get pregnant to force partner to make a commitment Some get pregnant to rebel Most get pregnant due to lack of knowledge of reproduction and contraception 750,000 teen girls get pregnant a year Results in 400,000 births a year 10 to 20 years ago, 1 million girls were getting pregnant each year CDCP attribute drop-off in careless sex to educational efforts by schools, the media, religious institutions, and communities Half of pregnant teens get abortions.

Consequences of Teenage Pregnancy Outcomes for teen mothers who have resources to nurture their babies are generally good. Pregnant teens more likely to have medical complications during the months of pregnancy, and their labor is likely to be prolonged Babies at a greater risk of being premature and LBW; most likely due to SES of the teen mother Teen mother less likely to graduate high school or move on to postsecondary education, more likely to need public assistance, and less likely to have assistance from the baby’s father

Preventing Teenage Pregnancy Some sexual education programs help to delay the onset of sexual activity. Among teenagers already sexually active, sex education is associated with the increased use of effective contraceptives.

Juvenile Delinquency 39

Juvenile Delinquency Juvenile delinquency Children or adolescents who engage in illegal activities and come into contact with the criminal justice system Can include serious behaviors as homicide, rape, and robbery Truancy, underage drinking, running away from home, and sexual promiscuity are considered illegal only when performed by a minor These are termed status offenses 4 in 10 crimes in the U.S. committed by individuals under the age of 21; 3 in 10 by adolescents under 18 Many delinquent acts are referred to mental health agency

Ethnicity, Gender, and Juvenile Delinquency African-American adolescents more likely to be arrested than European-American adolescents African-American youths are 13% of the adolescent population in the U.S. One-fourth of the juvenile arrests One-half of those arrested for violent crimes African-American children less likely than European-American children to be living with both parents

Ethnicity, Gender, and Juvenile Delinquency (cont’d) Bishop (2005) notes two explanations for the European American-African American difference 1) Differential offending hypothesis Actual racial differences contribute to the seriousness of delinquent behavior 2) Differential treatment hypothesis No behavioral differences between the two, yet groups are treated differently by the juvenile justice system

Ethnicity, Gender, and Juvenile Delinquency (cont’d) Risk factors Poverty African-American and Latino-American children are three times as likely as European-American youth to be living in poverty. Broken families African Americans less likely to be living with both of their biological parents Gender Boys more likely than girls to engage in crimes of violence Girls more likely than boys to commit status offenses

Suicide: When the Adolescent Has Nothing - Except Everything - to Lose 44

Suicide: When the Adolescent Has Nothing — Except Everything — to Lose Suicide is the third leading cause of death among adolescents. Since 1960, the suicide rate has tripled for young people, ages 15 to 24. 1 to 2 American adolescents in 10,000 commit suicide each year. 1 in 10 has attempted suicide at least once.

Risk Factors in Suicide Suicidal adolescents experience four areas of psychological problems (1) Confusion about the self (2) Impulsiveness (3) Emotional instability (4) Interpersonal problems Some suicidal teenagers are high achieving, rigid perfectionists who have set impossibly high expectations for themselves. Feel depressed when they compare themselves to others negatively Adolescent suicide attempts more common after stressful life event

Risk Factors in Suicide (cont’d) Stressful life events can include breaking up with a boyfriend/girlfriend death of a parent or friend a family member leaving home Other factors include concerns over sexuality, school grades, problems at home, substance abuse, being “found out” for something like failing grades, or getting arrested Suicide runs in families.

Risk Factors in Suicide (cont’d) Suicidal warning signs include belief that it is acceptable to kill one’s self drug abuse and other kinds of delinquency victimization by bullying extensive body piercing stress, hostility, depression, and other psychological disorders heavy smoking low self-esteem increasing age from 11 to 21

Ethnicity, Gender, and Suicide Native-American and Latin-American teenagers have highest suicide rates due in part to stresses they are exposed to lack of access to healthcare European-American teens are next highest rate African-American teens least likely to attempt or think about suicide 3 times as many female as males attempt a suicide 4 times as many males complete a suicide Males use rapid and lethal methods, females use drugs