Part 3: Qualitative Research

“I think metaphorically of qualitative research as an intricate fabric composed of minute threads, many colors, different textures, and various blends of material. The fabric is not explained easily or simply” -John W. Creswelll

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Basic Criticisms of Quantitative Research Preoccupied with control Reductionist Top down Misses big picture Basic Criticisms of Qualitative Research Subjective Biased Results not generalizable Unable to identify causal relationships

What is Qualitative Research? Many researchers are more interested in the quality and meaning of a particular activity Research studies that investigate the quality of relationships, activities, situations, or materials are frequently referred to as Qualitative Research. There is a greater emphasis on holistic description.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative

General Characteristics of Qualitative Research Five general features of Qualitative Research: The natural setting is a direct source and key element Collection is in the form of words or pictures Researchers are concerned with how things occur Construction of a picture while data is being collected vs. a priori hypotheses. Special interest in the participants’ thoughts

Philosophical Assumptions Differences between the paradigms of Qualitative vs. Quantitative are expressed in how one approaches an investigation. Positivism and post-positivism What are they? How do they view reality? Critical theory and Constructivism

Philosophical Assumptions Ontology What is the nature or reality? Epistemology What is relationship between the researcher and that which is being researched? Axiology What is the role of values? Rhetorical What is the language of research? Methodological What is the process of research? Do these differ for qualitative and quantitative researchers?

Paradigms Positivism Methods Deterministic Reductionism Empirical observation and measurement Methods Experimental, manipulative, verification

Paradigms (Cont.) Postpositivism Methods Theory testing Probabilistic Know reality imperfectly Replication Methods Experimental, surveys, causal-comparative, observational, interviews

Paradigms (Cont.) Critical theory Methods Political Empowerment Collaborative Change-oriented Social justice Methods Participatory action research

Paradigms (cont.) Constructivism Methods Understanding Multiple participant meanings Social construction Theory generation Methods Grounded theory, case studies, narrative research

“Is this the right conclusion?” “Passive” Researcher “Active” Researcher

Steps in Qualitative Research All qualitative studies have a distinct starting and ending point. The steps are as follows (in some cases): Identification of the phenomenon to be studied Identification of the participants in the study (purposive sample collecting) Generation of hypotheses Data collection (continual observance) Data analysis Interpretation/Conclusions

Approaches to Qualitative Research Five traditions (Creswell, 1998) + 1 Biographical Study Phenomenological Study Grounded Theory Study Ethnography Case Study Action Research

Biography A study of an individual and her or his experiences As told to the researcher As found in documents As written by the individual Biography Written by someone other than the individual Autobiography Written by the individual

Phenomenological Study A person’s construction of the meaning of a concept (phenomenon) Attempts to understand participants’ perspectives and views of social realities Attempt to understand what a specific experience is like by describing it as found in concrete situations as it appears to people living it. The researcher often has personal experience with the phenomenon Example of topics “being left out”, “falling asleep”, “being afraid of the dark”

Grounded Theory A general research method Generate or discover theory That is “grounded” in data that is systematically collected and analyzed. Recursive process of sampling and analysis Theory is developed during the course of the study.

Ethnography A description and interpretation of a cultural or social group. Examines a group’s Patterns of behavior Customs Ways of Life Participant Observation

Case Study Develops an in-depth analysis of a single case or multiple cases. Much can be learned from study one individual, one classroom, one school, or one school district. Types Intrinsic Interested in understanding a specific case Instrumental Interested in understanding something larger than the case. e.g., study of a teacher who uses phonics Multiple case study Additional cases are added. Why?

Action Research Conducted by one or more individuals for the purpose of solving a problem. Typically motivated by an immediate problem. Types Practical Action Research Primary purpose is to improve practice. Participatory Action Research Primary goal is empower individuals and groups to bring about social change.

Qualitative Sampling Qualitative research uses sampling strategies that produce samples that are predominantly small and non random. Keeps in line with the emphasis on in-depth description of participants’ perspectives and context. Purposive sampling ensures that the “best” participants are included.

Purposive Sampling Researcher identifies a research topic Then selects a sample of individuals who will provide relevant information. When a number of criteria are used the technique is called criterion purposive sampling.

Sampling Purposive Purposive Criterion Sampling High school teachers were asked to select students who, in their opinion, had the greatest likelihood of academic failure. Purposive Criterion Sampling African American males who were age 20 to 25, high school graduates, and married were the identified and interviewed for this study.

Group Discussion Name a general topic in which qualitative researchers might conduct research. Name at least four demographic variables that might be of interest to a researcher of this topic.

Sampling (cont.) In Quantitative terms purposive samples are non-probability samples Sampling methods that do not have random sampling at any stage of sample selection Convenience sampling Includes whoever is available Purposive sampling (a.k.a.) judgmental sampling Used often for qualitative studies In a quantitative framework what problem does this create in the interpretation of the results? How would a qualitative researcher respond to this critique?

Sampling in Qualitative Research Purposive Sampling Techniques: Typical Sample Extreme or Deviant Case Unusual or exceptional. Homogenous sampling No diversity. Sample has similar characteristics Snowball sampling selecting few participants who identify other good participants Confirming Sample Selected to confirm or disconfirm preliminary findings. Maximal Variation Sample as diverse as possible.

Sample size Qualitative studies are generally smaller. Why? What criteria is used by some qualitative researchers to determine when to stop sampling? Explain how it works.

Generalization in Qualitative Research A generalization is usually thought of as a statement or claim that applies to more than one individual, group, or situation. The value of a generalization is that it allows us to have expectations about the future. A limitation of Qualitative Research is that there is seldom justification for generalizing the findings of a particular study. Why? Do quantitative studies differ? Why? Why not?

In Groups According to Stanovich What problems exist with case studies? What is the place of the case study? What is the vividness problem? Give an example of it. What do YOU think the place of the case study is in educational (or social) research?