Education 173 Cognition and Learning in Educational Settings Instructional Strategies Fall Quarter 2007

Direct Instruction Direct Instruction Direct Instruction Also Called Teacher-Centered Instruction Also Called Teacher-Centered Instruction Expository Teaching Expository Teaching Didactic Teaching Didactic Teaching Does Direct Teaching Have Bad PR? Does Direct Teaching Have Bad PR? “Few pedagogic devices... have been repudiated more unequivocally... than expository verbal instruction” “Few pedagogic devices... have been repudiated more unequivocally... than expository verbal instruction” David Ausubel, Human Learning David Ausubel, Human Learning But Direct Instruction Can But Direct Instruction Can Be Efficient

Direct Instruction and Constructivism Prior Knowledge is Important Prior Knowledge is Important New knowledge must connect to LTM New knowledge must connect to LTM Is Direct Instruction Compatible with Constructivism? Is Direct Instruction Compatible with Constructivism? Remember that psychological constructivism is a theory of learning rather than a theory of teaching. Remember that psychological constructivism is a theory of learning rather than a theory of teaching. Evidence Against Minimally-Guided Instruction Evidence Against Minimally-Guided Instruction

Advance Organizers Advance Organizers An Advance Organizer is a Framework An Advance Organizer is a Framework Such as: An Outline, Overview, Diagram, or Table of Contents Such as: An Outline, Overview, Diagram, or Table of Contents Can Promote Schema Activation Can Promote Schema Activation Associated with Direct Instruction Associated with Direct Instruction

Time and Learning Time and Learning Problem: Students Vary in How Much They Learn Problem: Students Vary in How Much They Learn Why?: Students Learn at Different Rates Why?: Students Learn at Different Rates Carroll’s Model Carroll’s Model Why not let time vary, rather than achievement? Why not let time vary, rather than achievement? What Kind of Time? What Kind of Time? Academically engaged time Academically engaged time Or “time on task” Or “time on task”

Mastery Learning Mastery Learning Based on Carroll’s Model of Time and Learning Based on Carroll’s Model of Time and Learning Mastery Learning Proposed by Benjamin Bloom Mastery Learning Proposed by Benjamin Bloom Also of Bloom’s Taxonomy Also of Bloom’s Taxonomy Assumes All Students Can Learn Content Assumes All Students Can Learn Content Instruction Followed by Mastery Tests Instruction Followed by Mastery Tests Students are not allowed to progress until they demonstrate mastery (e.g., 90%) Students are not allowed to progress until they demonstrate mastery (e.g., 90%) Many students require extra time or extra help, including tutoring Many students require extra time or extra help, including tutoring Generally Positive Effects Generally Positive Effects Does Mastery Learning Close Gaps? Does Mastery Learning Close Gaps? Some evidence for this Some evidence for this Why? Because more students had entry skills Why? Because more students had entry skills

Discovery Learning Discovery Learning Learner-Centered Learner-Centered Uses Inductive Reasoning Uses Inductive Reasoning One form of inference One form of inference Inference is “going beyond the information given” (Bruner) Inference is “going beyond the information given” (Bruner) Induction is reasoning from specific instance to general principle Induction is reasoning from specific instance to general principle Is Discovery Learning Efficient? Is Discovery Learning Efficient? Not always Not always

Socratic Dialogue Socratic Dialogue Socrates Socrates The most “ignorant” man in Athens... but at least he knew that he was ignorant. The most “ignorant” man in Athens... but at least he knew that he was ignorant. Socratic Dialogue as a Teaching Method Socratic Dialogue as a Teaching Method Questions posed by teacher Questions posed by teacher Questions answered by student Questions answered by student Purpose: To spark thinking Purpose: To spark thinking What Was Socrates’ Goal? What Was Socrates’ Goal? Student admits ignorance Student admits ignorance Now, he and Socrates both know that they are ignorant Now, he and Socrates both know that they are ignorant Then real learning proceeds Then real learning proceeds Does learning require humility? Does learning require humility?

Inquiry Inquiry Inquiry as a Guiding Goal of Education Inquiry as a Guiding Goal of Education Similar to discovery learning (but larger in scope) Similar to discovery learning (but larger in scope) Related to constructivism Related to constructivism Why? Students are active during learning Why? Students are active during learning Science Education, Especially Science Education, Especially National Science Education Standards National Science Education Standards Broad Meaning of Inquiry Broad Meaning of Inquiry Not only lab experiences Not only lab experiences Also, writing, reading, discussions Also, writing, reading, discussions Expands what is meant by “scientific method” Expands what is meant by “scientific method”

Reciprocal Teaching Promotes Reading Comprehension Promotes Reading Comprehension Initially Led by Teacher Initially Led by Teacher Students Assume Teaching Roles Students Assume Teaching Roles Turn taking Turn taking Assignment of Roles Assignment of Roles Promoting Learning Through Text Comprehension Promoting Learning Through Text Comprehension Used at a Wide Range of Grade Levels Used at a Wide Range of Grade Levels Elementary through University Elementary through University

Aptitude-Treatment Interactions ATIs ATIs A Valid Intuition A Valid Intuition Different students require Different students require different experiences What is an Aptitude? What is an Aptitude? Cognitive trait Cognitive trait Or personality trait Or personality trait Or any trait relevant to instruction Or any trait relevant to instruction What is a Treatment? What is a Treatment? ATIs Are About Matching Treatment to Aptitude for Optimal Learning ATIs Are About Matching Treatment to Aptitude for Optimal Learning Like organism to ecological niche Like organism to ecological niche

More About ATIs Aptitude is About Fit Aptitude is About Fit Similar to adaptation in biology, or fitness for particular niches Similar to adaptation in biology, or fitness for particular niches No single best aptitude No single best aptitude No single best treatment No single best treatment The Most General ATI The Most General ATI Intelligence and Degree of Structure Intelligence and Degree of Structure Higher-Level Interactions Higher-Level Interactions Can ATIs become too complicated? Can ATIs become too complicated?

Cognitive Styles Cognitive Styles Styles versus Abilities Styles versus Abilities Value-Differentiated Rather Than Value- Directional Value-Differentiated Rather Than Value- Directional More is not necessarily better More is not necessarily better Examples of Styles Examples of Styles Field Independence Field Independence Impulsivity vs. Reflectivity Impulsivity vs. Reflectivity Are Styles Important? Are Styles Important? “Organizing our thinking about learning styles. Curry's (1983) Onion Metaphor” Source: module6%20-%20LrnSty.html