High North in world politics, and changing geopolitics of the North International Summer School in Karelia , May 2010 Dr. Lassi Heininen University of Lapland / Northern Research Forum

A perspective of the future ?

Two main discourses in the 2010s Stability and peacefulness based on institutionalized cooperation across borders by arctic states and non-states actors vs. Potential ‘race’ of natural resources and emerging conflicts, and consequently, an emphasis of state sovereignty and national interests (by littoral states)

Third discourse High North in world politics – five viewpoints: Geopolitical point of view Scientific point of view Diversity of life Viewpoint of stability Viewpoint of innovations

Traditional ways to define Geographically: The Arctic Ocean with sub-seas and two rim-lands with archipelagos Demographically: million people – both major nations and indigenous peoples Politically 1: Eight arctic states: Canada, Denmark through Greenland and the Faroes, Finland, Iceland, Norway, the Russian Federation, Sweden and the USA through Alaska Politically 2: Five littoral states of the Arctic Ocean: Canada, Denmark-Greenland, Norway, Russia and USA Juristically: Divided by the national borders of these states; except the Faroes with Home Rule and Greenland as self-government, and Svalbard under the auspices of the international Treaty on Svalbard and governed by Norway Legally: Exclusive Economic Zones based on UNCLOS, and few disputes on maritime borders

A need to redefine? ‘Used Geo-names’ over the northernmost regions of the globe: - ‘The Arctic’ - ‘The circumpolar North’ - ‘The High North’ --- The region is consisted of 8 states (= A8), or 5 states (=A5), or what?

Schools of Geopolitics Classical geopolitics: physical space and power New geopolitics: economics, actors, identities Critical geopolitics: politicization of physical space, importance of social space, interrelation between knowledge and power

Implementations of the schools Classical geopolitics: the resource models, the technology models New geopolitics: Indigenous peoples, the Northern dimension Critical geopolitics: Arctic (internal / external) images, the uncertainty related to climate change

Changing geopolitical position of the High North Unmapped area and ‘unknown’ world => Periphery or marginal area => Frontier => Resource area for states => Strategic security zone for super powers => Geopolitical change => Environmental linchpin => ‘Distinctive’ international region => Globalisation and its flows => Stable, peaceful and innovative cooperative area => Another geopolitical change => ??

Historical perspective I Regionalism: Local and regional utilization of natural resources, and Northern connections, communications and communities (e.g. Viking Age) State policy: From terra nullius under area for taxation, privilegions and missionaries – still a frontier World politics: Major powers in northern waters for fishing and catching whales State policy: Under state sovereignty, warfare in northern seas and internationalization into settlements, and ‘militarization’

Historical perspective II State policy: State hegemony (with closed borders), and industrialization and modernization (e.g. cheap energy) Regionalism: Decolonization, devolution, and recognition of ethnic minorities, and international cooperation by Indigenous peoples and civil societies State policy: from hegemony into cooperation and region-building (e.g. BEAR and AC)

In the early-1990s: Significant geopolitical change “From confrontation to cooperation” The transition period of the international system: Instead of high tension and confrontation trans-boundary cooperation and stability – ‘Age of the Arctic’ Civilian and intergovernmental activities for environmental protection New regionalism e.g. NNE and CORA From state hegemony into sophisticated policy (e.g. ‘Northern dimension’ as metaphor for new North – South relations)

Current perspective High stability and peacefulness within the region based on international cooperation New and dynamic institutional landscape based on wide international (multilateral) cooperation No conflicts but some disputes on maritime borders - rules by UNCLOS Claims on land and waters by Natives Asymmetric environmental conflicts Global (environmental) problems, and flows of globalization

Main themes of Geopolitics and IR 1) Increasing circumpolar cooperation by indigenous peoples’ organizations and sub- national governments 2) Region-building with unified states as major actors 3) New kind of relationship between the circumpolar North and the outside world (Heininen 2004 in Arctic Human Development Report)

Key international actors Unified States: the Arctic Eight + states from outside IGOs: Arctic Council, Barents Euro-Arctic Council, Parliamentarians of the Arctic and the Nordic Council of Ministers + UNs, NATO and EU INGOs: Inuit Circumpolar Council and the Saami Council, and Greenpeace International and WWF, and International Arctic Science Committee, Northern Research Forum and the University of the Arctic Sub-national governments: Home Rule Government of Greenland and the Russian Association for Small Northern Nations (RAIPON) TNCs: e.g. mining, oil and natural gas, fishery and forestry companies + state monopolies / state-dominated oil and gas companies

Role and importance of the arctic states The role and position of the Arctic states was changed due to the 1st geopolitical change Still the most important actor The states emphasize the importance of the Arctic Council but have their own interests, agendas, priorities and strategies and policies Iceland, Canada, Denmark/Greenland, Norway, Russia and USA have recently accepted and approved their arctic/northern strategy The five littoral states with their (ministerial) meetings

Table 1. Membership of the Arctic States in International Organizations EUEEANATOEAPCNAFTAG7/8 Canadaxxxx Denmarkxxxx - Green(x-OCT)(x) - Faroes(x) Finlandxxx Icelandxxx Norwayxxx Russiaxx Swedenxxx USAxxxx

Table 2. Membership of the Arctic States in Regional Organizations ACIlulissatBEACCBSSNCMND Canadaxx Denmarkxxxxxx - Green (x)(x)xx - Faroes?x? Finlandxx+xxx Icelandxxxxx Norwayxxx+xxx Russiaxxx+xx Swedenxx+xxx USAxx (EU)xxx

Table 3. Treaties dealing with the Arctic ILOSpitzPBearNEAFCUNCLOS Canadaxx(x)x Denmarkxxxxx - Greenland(x)x - Faroesx Finlandxx Icelandxxx Norwayxxxxx Russiaxxxx Swedenxx USAxx

Canada “Northern country” and “the global leader in Arctic science” The priority areas of the Canada’s Northern Strategy (July 2009): 1. Exercising our Arctic sovereignty; 2. Promoting social and economic development; 3. Protecting the North’s environmental heritage; 4. Improving and devolving northern governance; and plus, the “International dimension of the Northern Strategy”. Definition: “Own North” = Canada’s far North, and “Canada’s North is about people”

Denmark/Greenland ”The Commonwealth as a major player in the Arctic” Denmark/Greenland`s (draft) strategy “The Arctic at a Time of Transition: Draft Strategy for Activities in the Arctic Region” (June 2006) “contains a series of objectives for the work, which is twofold: 1)supporting and strengthening Greenland's development towards increased autonomy, and 2)to maintain the commonwealth's position as a major player in the Arctic Definition: “The Arctic in recent years become a central location on the world map”

Iceland “Only country located entirely within the Arctic region” The highlights of the Report on Sustainable Development in the Arctic (September 2009): 1. International cooperation (with neighboring countries and in the context of the AC); 2. Security (through int coop and meaning maritime safety); 3. Resource development and environmental protection (esp. Iceland’s interests in fishery); 4. Transportation (meaning new trans-arctic shipping routes and aviation); 5. People and cultures (incl. use of region’s uniqueness in business); and 6. Research, higher education and monitoring (through int coop) Definition: Iceland is located “on the periphery of the Arctic in the center of the North Atlantic Ocean”

Norway “Growing recognition of the importance of the High North for Norway as a whole” The Main political priorities for the Strategy are: 1. To exercise an authority in a credible, consistent and predictable way; 2. To develop knowledge in and about the High North; 3. To promote sustainable use of environ and nat resources in the High North 4. To provide further development of petroleum activities in the Barents Sea; 5. To safeguard the livelihoods, traditions and cultures of indigenous peoples; 6. To further develop people-to-people cooperation in the High North; 7. To strengthen cooperation with Russia and increase Russia’s engagement Definition: the High North means more or less the Barents Sea region, and “the High North has been placed firmly on the map of Europe”

Russian Federation “Maintain the role of a leading Arctic power” The strategy priorities of “Fundamental of State Policy of the Russian Federation in the Arctic in the Period up to 2020 and Beyond” (Sept 2008): 1. Legal enlargement of Russia’s outer maritime areas through active interaction with the sub-Arctic states on the delimitation of the Arctic Ocean by international law 2. To create a uniform Arctic search and rescue regime and prevention of accidents 3. Strengthening of bilateral relationships within the framework of regional organizations 4. Assistance in the organization, management and use of cross-polar air and sea routes 5. Active contributions to international Arctic forums (e.g. Russia-EU partnership) 6. Delimitation of maritime spaces in the Arctic Ocean and Russian presence in Svalbard 7. Improvement of state management of the social and economic development 8. Improvement of the quality of life for indigenous peoples and their economic activities 9. Development of the Arctic resource base through improved technological capabilities 10. Modernization and development of Russia’s Arctic infrastructure Definition: the five littoral states of the Arctic Ocean

U.S.A. The U.S.A. is an ”Arctic nation” Interpreted objectives of the United States’ Arctic Strategy “Arctic Region Policy” (January 2009): 1. National security and homeland security interests in the Arctic; 2. International governance (through the Arctic Council) 3. Boundary issues (incl. extended continental shelf); 4. International scientific cooperation; 5. Maritime transportation; 6. Economic development, particularly energy; 7. Environmental protection and conservation; Definition: the Arctic with ”a matrix of issues”

Table 4. Priorities and Objectives SoverEconEnvirGovPeo/IIntcoop Canada (4)xxxx(x) DK/Gr (2)x(x)x Iceland (6-7)x/xx x/xx x (AC) Norway (7)xxxxx/xx (Ru) Russia (10)xx/x x/x /xx (AC) USA (7)xx/xxx/x x (AC) EU (3)xxxx

The emphasis of the Arctic states in the High North - main characteristics Canada: Sovereignty over sea-areas and arctic identity Denmark/Greenland: Self-governing of Greenland and cooperation between the littoral states Finland: Too early to say, since work in progress - maybe economics, strengthening of Arctic Council, and presence of European Union Iceland: Natural resources, new trans-arctic sea routes and international cooperation Norway: Comprehensive policy and utilization of energy resources in the High North (=Barents Region) in cooperation with Russia Russia: Comprehensive and pragmatic policy by the Federation and utilization of natural resources Sweden: The Baltic Sea! USA: Homeland security, freedom of the seas, and science

In the 2010s Another significant environmental, geoeconomic and geopolitical change is occurring The region has recently witnessed a manifold growth in its geo-strategic importance due to several reasons Growing global interest toward the region and its rich natural resources Several indicators of a change e.g. climate change --- The question: the post-Cold War period is over?

Climate change Speed: it’s rapid! E.g. thinning of sea ice, melting of glaciers, thawing of permafrost, release of methane Multi-functionality: socio-economic impacts e.g. collapse of man-made infrastructure and settlements Indirect: scarcity of food, lack of trad. food The ’uncertainty’: threatens people and socities, even state sovereignty

Consequences Climate change has become a relevant security factor with special features It has caused change(s) in problem definition on security discourses and premises = new northern security/ies This requests good governance by citizens, and consequently, security may become less mystified and controlled by the state and the (security-)political elite

The High North in world politics Geopolitical point of view: as a highly strategic area Scientific point of view: as a ‘laboratory’ or ‘workshop for research and the environ and climate change Diversity of life: as a distinct component of the diversity of a nature on the Earth Viewpoint of stability: as not overtly plagued by anyone big regional or global problem Viewpoint of innovations and being a driving force: innovations in governance/co-management, and in political and legal arrangements e.g. devolution of power

Geopolitical point of view Highly strategic area militarily and military- politically e.g. SSBNs, NMD system Highly strategic area politically and security-politically e.g. energy security Highly strategic area (geo)economically and from point of view of international trade e.g. oil and gas, and new (global) sea routes and air routes

The resource models Rich in natural resources E.g. marine resources and minerals Nowadays energy resources – onshore Larger energy resources offshore – option! Behind (global) energy security

The Russian continental shelf claim

New and global routes Option and importance of new and global (much potential) sea and air routes Northern Sea Route and North-West Passage New trans-arctic sea routes

The technology models Strategic importance of the High North for the military E.g. nuclear weapon system, SSBNs, missiles, radars and the C3I-system Particularly, area for arms testing, military maneuvres and training ’Militarization’ of the space e.g. NMD

Special features of Northern security Technology models of geopolitics Nuclear safety Interrelations between the environment and security (the military) Relations between Indigenous peoples and security / the military (Global) Energy security Climate change

The Environment Many and acute reasons for environmental concern - threats / risks of security Northerners living close to, and from, a nature with traditional ecological knowledge Environmental protection as a new and common field of foreign policy The driving force for civilian action and inter- governmental cooperation in the High North => the AC and its Working Groups e.g. AMAP, CAFF, PAME and SDWG

Scientific point of view The Arctic as an environmental linchpin with a critical role in global environmental issues: as a laboratory and workshop for (multi- disciplinary) research on the environment and climate change as a workshop for the interplay between knowledges, and science and politics as useful models for future action on environmental protection based on international and institutional cooperation

Diversity of... Diversity of nature: as a distinct component of the diversity of a nature on the Earth Diversity of life: as a distinct component of the diversity of cultures and community viability in the world Cultural integrity: the experience of the Arctic demonstrates that cultures can remain viable even in the face of rapid and multi-dimensional changes (AHDR 2004)

Viewpoint of innovations Technological advances: evidence from the Arctic demonstrates both the feasibility and the desirability of applying advanced technologies to address social problems Innovations in governance and co- management, and in political and legal arrangements - e.g. devolution of power Being, or becoming, a driving force!

Political and legal innovations “The Arctic has become a leader in the development of innovative political and legal arrangements that meet the needs of the residents of the region without rupturing the larger political systems in which the region is embedded” (Conclusions by AHDR 2004)

Also gaps in knowledge – e.g. Settlers: to learn more about the experiences of recent settlers in the Arctic and their interactions with the region’s indigenous peoples Industry: to improve our understanding of the roles that modern industrial activities play in the pursuit of sustainable development at the regional level IR: there has been little debate over how human and environmentally sustainable regional development are facilitated or constrained by security policies / military activities in the region

Stability and peacefulness Viewpoint of stability: as not overtly plagued by anyone big regional or global problem, such as war or armed conflict - this is an achievement in the 2010s!

Task for the workshops Recognize and list, and describe, most important and valuable things, or values, or experiences, or learned lessons, what the High North has given, or can give, to the (rest of the) world Further, how much this is dealing with material and immaterial values