Structure & Function of Large Biological Molecules (Macromolecules)

*When given a molecular formula – be able to give the structural formula Ball-and-Stick Model Space-Filling Model Name (a) Methane (b) Ethane (c) Ethene (ethylene)

Remember, number of covalent bonds is determined by the valence electrons (number of electrons in outermost energy level) Number of covalent bonds formed (Commit these to Memory) H – 1 O – 2 N – 3 C - 4

Concept 5.1: Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers A polymer is a long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks These small building-block molecules are called monomers Three of the four classes of life’s organic molecules are polymers: Carbohydrates Proteins Nucleic acids Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Carbohydrates include sugars and the polymers of sugars Concept 5.2: Carbohydrates serve as fuel (energy) and building material Carbohydrates include sugars and the polymers of sugars The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides, or single sugars Carbohydrate macromolecules are polysaccharides, polymers composed of many sugar building blocks Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Sugars Monosaccharides have molecular formulas that are usually multiples of CH2O ratio: 1:2:1 Glucose (C6H12O6) is the most common monosaccharide Other examples are fructose, galactose Glucose, fructose, and galactose have the same molecular formula, C6H12O6, but the atoms are arranged differently. This is the definition of an isomer. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The #’s 1-6 represent the positions Fig. 5-4b The #’s 1-6 represent the positions of 6 carbons in glucose Figure 5.4 Linear and ring forms of glucose (b) Abbreviated ring structure Always start with oxygen in the ring and count carbons going clockwise

Disaccharide means “2 sugars”. Know the following disaccharides: A disaccharide is formed when the dehydration synthesis reaction joins two monosaccharides. Disaccharide means “2 sugars”. Know the following disaccharides: Glucose + glucose = maltose (think Whoppers) Glucose + fructose = sucrose (table sugar) Glucose + galactose = lactose (milk sugar) Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

(a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of the disachharide, maltose 1–4 glycosidic linkage Glucose Glucose Maltose (a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of the disachharide, maltose 1–2 glycosidic linkage Figure 5.5 Examples of disaccharide synthesis Glucose Fructose Sucrose (b) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of the disaccharide, sucrose

Hydrolysis – “adding water breaks bonds” Hydrolysis – “adding water breaks bonds”. It is the opposite of dehydration synthesis – start with polymer or bigger molecule, add water and end up with monomers or building blocks. + H20 → Now 2 separate molecules maltose glucose glucose

Storage Polysaccharides Starch, a storage polysaccharide of plants, consists entirely of glucose monomers Plants store surplus starch as granules within chloroplasts and other plastids Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

(a) Starch: a plant polysaccharide Fig. 5-6 Chloroplast Starch Mitochondria Glycogen granules 0.5 µm 1 µm Figure 5.6 Storage polysaccharides of plants and animals Glycogen (a) Starch: a plant polysaccharide (b) Glycogen: an animal polysaccharide

Glycogen is a storage polysaccharide in animals Humans and other vertebrates store glycogen mainly in liver and muscle cells. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Structural Polysaccharides The polysaccharide cellulose is a major component of the tough wall of plant cells Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

(b) Starch: 1–4 linkage of glucose monomers Fig. 5-7bc (b) Starch: 1–4 linkage of glucose monomers Figure 5.7 Starch and cellulose structures (c Cellulose: 1–4 linkage of glucose monomers

cellulose Cell walls Cellulose microfibrils in a plant cell wall Fig. 5-8 Cell walls Cellulose microfibrils in a plant cell wall cellulose Microfibril 10 µm 0.5 µm Cellulose molecules Figure 5.8 The arrangement of cellulose in plant cell walls Glucose monomer

Enzymes that digest starch can’t break bonds in cellulose Cellulose in human food passes through the digestive tract as insoluble fiber Some microbes use enzymes to digest cellulose Many herbivores, from cows to termites, have symbiotic relationships with these microbes Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 5-9 Figure 5.9 Cellulose-digesting prokaryotes are found in grazing animals such as this cow

Chitin, another structural polysaccharide, is found in the exoskeleton of arthropods Chitin also provides structural support for the cell walls of many fungi Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Chitin – a structural carbohydrate Fig. 5-10 Chitin – a structural carbohydrate containing nitrogen (a) The structure of the chitin monomer. (b) Chitin forms the exoskeleton of arthropods. (c) Chitin is used to make a strong and flexible surgical thread. Figure 5.10 Chitin, a structural polysaccharide

Concept 5.3: Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules Lipids are the one class of large biological molecules that do not form polymers Lipids are hydrophobic & form nonpolar covalent bonds The most biologically important lipids are fats, phospholipids, and steroids, waxes & oils Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fats Fats are constructed from two types of smaller molecules: glycerol and 3 fatty acids Glycerol is a three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to each carbon A fatty acid consists of a carboxyl group (-COOH) attached to a long carbon skeleton Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of a fat Fig. 5-11a Fatty acid Glycerol Figure 5.11 The synthesis and structure of a fat, or triacylglycerol (a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of a fat

3 water molecules are removed to attach a fatty acid chain to each of the 3 carbons in glycerol Figure 5.11 The synthesis and structure of a fat, or triacylglycerol (b) Fat molecule

Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Structural formula of a saturated fat molecule Stearic acid, a Fig. 5-12a Structural formula of a saturated fat molecule Figure 5.12 Examples of saturated and unsaturated fats and fatty acids Stearic acid, a saturated fatty acid (a) Saturated fat

unsaturated fatty acid Structural formula of an unsaturated Fig. 5-12b Structural formula of an unsaturated fat molecule Oleic acid, an unsaturated fatty acid Figure 5.12 Examples of saturated and unsaturated fats and fatty acids cis double bond causes bending (b) Unsaturated fat

Most animal fats are saturated Fats made from saturated fatty acids are called saturated fats, and are solid at room temperature Most animal fats are saturated Fats made from unsaturated fatty acids are called unsaturated fats or oils, and are liquid at room temperature Plant fats and fish fats are usually unsaturated Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

A diet rich in saturated fats may contribute to cardiovascular disease through plaque deposits Hydrogenation is the process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen Trans fats may contribute more than saturated fats to cardiovascular disease Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The major function of fats is energy storage Humans and other mammals store their fat in adipose cells Adipose tissue also cushions vital organs and insulates the body Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Phospholipids In a phospholipid, two fatty acids and a phosphate group are attached to glycerol The two fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, but the phosphate group and its attachments form a hydrophilic head Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Choline Hydrophilic head Phosphate Glycerol Fatty acids Fig. 5-13 Choline Hydrophilic head Phosphate Glycerol Fatty acids Hydrophobic tails Hydrophilic head Figure 5.13 The structure of a phospholipid Hydrophobic tails (a) Structural formula (b) Space-filling model (c) Phospholipid symbol

Phospholipids are the major component of all cell membranes When phospholipids are added to water, they self-assemble into a bilayer, with the hydrophobic tails pointing toward the interior Phospholipids are the major component of all cell membranes Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Cell membrane- Phopholipid bilayer Fig. 5-14 Hydrophilic head WATER Figure 5.14 Bilayer structure formed by self-assembly of phospholipids in an aqueous environment WATER Cell membrane- Phopholipid bilayer Hydrophobic tail

Steroids Steroids are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings Cholesterol, an important steroid, is a component in animal cell membranes Although cholesterol is essential in animals, high levels in the blood may contribute to cardiovascular disease For the Cell Biology Video Space Filling Model of Cholesterol, go to Animation and Video Files. For the Cell Biology Video Stick Model of Cholesterol, go to Animation and Video Files. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Steroids (4 FUSED CARBON RINGS) Fig. 5-15 Steroids (4 FUSED CARBON RINGS) Figure 5.15 Cholesterol, a steroid EX) Cholesterol