Environmental and multi-cultural influences: Where do we stand? The precise manner in which environmental and cultural influences are incorporated psychologically has not yet been determined. But, what we do know is that Culture matters in psychology.

Lessons Learned What are some bottom lines? 1.There are no absolutes. 2.Cultural influences are complex and dynamic. 3.Free Will is relevant. 4.Attributing cause is extremely complicated. 5.The field of psychology must address culture, theoretically and methodologically. 6.Real world intercultural relations provide ultimate validation of the relevance of culture..

BUILDING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE The most frequently cited work in this area is by M. J. Bennett. He views intercultural competence (IC) more in terms of an ongoing, developmental approach than a grouping of specific behaviors.

Bennett (1993) proposed a model of Intercultural Sensitivity which he defines as “The construction of reality as increasingly capable of accommodating cultural differences that constitute development” Bennett, 1993, p4).

BUILDING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE Six Stages of Inter-cultrual Relations Three stages of Ethnocentrism Denial Defense Minimization Three Stages of Ethnorelativism Acceptance Adaptation Integration

BUILDING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE Ethnocentrism: A simple way to conceive of the three stages of ethnocentrism is in terms of attitudes toward cultural differences: those in the denial stage deny the existence of cultural differences, those in the defense stage demonize them, and those in the minimization stage trivialize differences

ETHNOCENTRISM Bennet outlines three stages in his ethnocentric mode of Intercultural sensitivity, as follows: Stage One: Denial - This is a primitive ethnocentric stage in which there is denial that cultural differences even exist.

Persons at this stage are not threatened by cultural differences because they refuse to accept them. Generally, those who experience cultural denial have not had extensive contact with people different from themselves, and thus have no experiential basis for believing in other cultures. A key indicator of the denial stage is the belief that you know better than the locals.

Stage (cont.) Stage Two: Defense - At this stage there is acknowledgement of cultural differences, BUT these differences are seen as threatening to self. - As a defense mechanism, many people denigrate others and express derogatory attitudes and behaviors towards them.

Cultural differences at this stage are seen as problems to be overcome, and there is a dualistic “us vs. them” mentality. Persons in the defense stage feel threatened by “competing” cultures, tend to surround themselves with member of their own culture, and avoid contact with “them.”

Satges (cont.) Stage Three: Minimization - This stages involves recognition of cultural differences BUT downplaying their importance in our lives.

People in the minimization stage of ethnocentrism are still threatened by cultural differences, but try to minimize them by telling themselves that people are more similar than dissimilar. They still have not developed cultural self- awareness, and are insistent about getting along with everyone.

ETHNORELATIVISM Stage Four: Acceptance - First stage under ethnorelativism - Cultural differences at this stage are recognized and accepted. Notions of biculturalism and multiculturalism stem from thinking at this stage.

In this first stage of ethnorelativism, people begin recognize other cultures and to accept them as viable alternatives to their own worldview. People in the acceptance phase can be thought of as “culture- neutral,” seeing differences as neither bad nor good, but rather as a fact of life.

Stages (cont.) Stage Five: Adaptation During the adaptation phase, people begin to view cultural differences as a valuable resource, and thus relish the differences. Because differences are seen as positive, people consciously adapt their behaviors to the different cultural norms of their environment.

Stages (cont.) Stage Six: Integration - The final stage of ethno-relativism has to do with the integration of plurality into our cognitive organizational structures and our behavior at the level of a philosophy as well as a conscious awareness. - At this stage cultural differences are evaluated on the basis of plurality and context as opposed to a single cultural perspective.

In this stage, people acceptance of their identity is not based in any single culture. Once integrated, people can effortlessly and even unconsciously shift between worldviews and cultural frames of reference. Though they maintain their own individual identity, they naturally integrate aspects of other cultures into it.

Bennett’s model offers a means of identifying the various stages involved in the development of ethno-relativism as well as the specific skills, cognitions, and emotional processes associated with each of these stages.

Developmental Processes and Culture

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Does Culture play a role? What does the research show?

Piaget’s Theory Cognitive Development involves various qualitatively different stages. Piaget’s theory (based on observations of Swiss children) –Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years –Preoperational stage: 2 to 6-7 years Conservation, centration, irreversibility, egocentrism, animism –Concrete operations stage: 6-7 to 11 years –Formal operations stage: 11 years to adulthood

Piaget’s Theory Mechanisms for moving from one stage to next –Assimilation: fitting new ideas into preexisting understanding of world –Accommodation: changing one’s understanding of world to accommodate ideas that conflict with existing concepts –Piaget believed these stages to be universal

Piaget’s Theory in Cross-Cultural Perspective Do Piaget’s stages occur in the same order in different cultures? –Yes Are the ages that Piaget associated with each stage of development the same in all cultures? –No, cultural variations exist (but children may have potential to solve tasks sooner)

Piaget’s Theory in Cross-Cultural Perspective Are there culture-based variations within, rather than between, Piaget’s stages? –Yes, cultural variations in the order in which skills within a particular stage are qcquired Do non-Western cultures regard scientific reasoning as the ultimate developmental end point? –No Ex) Islamic educational systems

Piaget’s Theory: Summary and Discussion In some cultures, very few can complete a fourth-stage Piagetian task –Cultural appropriateness of tasks –Skills being tested –Role of previous knowledge and cultural values Universality of fourth stage has not been demonstrated

Other Theories of Cognitive Development Great divide theory –Separates Westerners from those in less technologically and educationally advanced societies –Non-Westerners’ development seen as inferior –Justification of colonial imperialism, ethnocentric Non-westerners also have ethnocentric assumptions

MORAL REASONING

Kohlberg’s Theory of Morality Kohlberg’s theory of moral development –Preconventional morality: compliance with rules to avoid punishment and gain rewards –Conventional morality: conformity to rules defined by others’ approval or society’s rules –Postconventional morality: moral reasoning on basis of individual principles and conscience

Cross-Cultural Studies of Moral Reasoning Cross-cultural studies suggest many aspects of Kohlberg’s theory of morality are universal –Snarey (1985), Ma (1988) Cross-cultural studies also raise questions about the universality of Kohlberg’s higher stages –Cultural biases –Moral reasoning at higher stages is culture- specific

Cross-Cultural Studies of Moral Reasoning Miller –Moralities of community –Moralities of divinity

OTHER DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES

Developmental research offer insights into causes and contexts of ontogenesis of cultural differences Cross-cultural developmental research in many areas such as future-oriented goals and commitments, social expectations, affective and romantic relationships in adolescence, etc.