Genes to Proteins Pratt & Cornely Chapter 3
Nucleic Acid Structure Nucleobase Nucleoside Nucleotide Nucleic acid Chromatin Chromosome
Base Structure Purines and pyrimidines Aromatic Tautomers
Nucleosides Ribonucleosides and deoxyribonucleoside Purine = osine; pyrimidine = idine (watch cytosine)
Nucleotides Phosphorylated on 2’, 3’, or 5’ 5’ unless noted Letter abbreviations Draw these: – dA – ADP – ppAp
Nucleotides pA is normally called _______ or ____________
Other Functions Nucleotides are used as energy storage (ATP) or combined with vitamins to make cofactors (NAD +, NADP +, CoA)
Polynucleotides Phosphate diesters polyanion directionality 5’ 3’ Abbreviation is pdApdGpdTpdC Tetranucleotide Oligonucleotide Exonucleases and endonucleases
Double Helix B-DNA Chargoff’s Rule Antiparallel Right handed twist ladder
Complementary Base Pairs Mismatching may occur with tautomers
Double Helix Structure Dimensions-10 bp/turn Major/minor grooves Sugar phosphate backbone toward solvent Base pairs stacked, perpendicular Edges of bases exposed in grooves for recognition
Major/Minor Groove Many pictures show ladder with backbone at 180 o Actually a distorted ladder with poles closer to each other, on one side
Weak Forces Stabilize Double Helix Stacking interactions (vdW forces) Hydrophobic effect Charge-charge Hydrogen bonding – Little contribution to stability – Large contribution to selectivity
Denaturation Melting point Melting curve UV-absorption cooperative
Problem 19 True or False: Because a G:C base pair is stabilized by three hydrogen bonds, whereas an A:T base pair is stabilized by only two hydrogen bonds, GC rich DNA is harder to melt than AT-rich DNA.
A/T Rich and G/C Rich strands GC rich strands harder to denature due to STACKING (not H-bonds) Cooperativity due to initial unstacking, which exposes bases to water, which destabilizes H- bonds, which leads to further denaturation
Reannealing
Bacterial DNA Closed, circular DNA Supercoiling Topology and topoisomerases
Eukaryotic DNA
Chromosome Scaffold of RNA and protein 30nm fibers are looped many times Picture of histone- depleted chromosome: DNA strands have fallen off of scaffold
RNA Structure RNA/DNA hybrid tRNA
RNA Structure, Stability, and Function Structural difference of 2’ hydroxyl – H-bonding in RNA structure – Reactions of catalytic RNA (rare) – Hydrolysis Structure dictates role difference in DNA/RNA
Central Dogma
Transcription RNA polymerase 5’ to 3’ growth mRNA matches coding strand Except mRNA contains U, not T
Why does DNA not contain U? DNA damage from UV light, hydrolysis, oxidation If DNA contained U, it would be unable to recognize a hydrolyzed cytosine In RNA, damage not as important, and T production is costly
Translation Ribosome rRNA tRNA
DNA Sequencing DNA Polymerase: 5’ 3’ Sanger method dideoxynucleotides
Pyrosequencing Attach DNA to a solid surface Run dNTPs over DNA one at a time If reaction occurs, PP i is produced Linked to a luciferase Light detected
Polymerase Chain Reaction PCR – Denature – Anneal primer – Polymerase – Repeat Taq polymerase Exponential production
Recombinant DNA technology Recombinant DNA – Allows incorporation of gene(s) into other DNA – Cut with exonucleases, anneal, and ligate Recombinant DNA serves as a cloning vector – Incorporate into cells – Select cells that have been transformed
Catalytic Hydrolysis: Nucleases Enzymes can catalyze hydrolysis Very important reactions! Nucleases – RNase vs DNase Single/double strand – Exonuclease vs Endonuclease – Orientation of hydrolysis
Endonuclease
Restriction Enzyme Endonucleases recognize palindromes Sticky ends and blunt ends
Problem 62 Restriction enzymes are used to construct restriction maps of DNA. These are diagrams of specific DNA molecules that show the sites where the restriction enzymes cleave the DNA. To construct a restriction map, purified samples of DNA are treated with restriction enzymes, either alone or in combination, and then the reaction products are separated by agarose gel electrophoresis. Use the results of this gel to construct a restriction map for this sample of DNA.
Making a Cloning Vector
ampR is gene for ampicillin resistance LacZ encodes galactosidase
Selecting Transformed Bacteria Some plasmids are recombinant, and some are not Some cells accept a plasmid, some accept recombinant plasmid, and some don’t accept any Transformed cells selected by growing on a petri dish with ampicilin and galactose derivative Explain
Site-directed Mutagenesis Point mutations Examine importance of a residue Modify protein function