What is Anthropology? Unit 1

Human Diversity Anthropologists study humans – wherever and whenever they find them Rural Kenya Turkish café Mesopotamian tomb North American shopping mall Humans are some of the world’s most adaptable animals Creativity, adaptability, and flexibility are basic human attributes Human diversity is the subject matter of anthropology

Human Diversity Anthropology: study of the human species and its immediate ancestors It is a uniquely comparative and holistic science Holism: refers to the study of the whole of the human condition: past, present, and future; biology, society, language, and culture

Human Diversity True/False: Anthropologists study fossils and nonindustrial peoples FALSE: Examines all societies, ancient and modern, simple and complex Constantly compares the customs of one society with others

Human Diversity Society – organized life in groups Several animals have societies Wolves, ants, baboons Culture is distinctly human Culture: traditions and customs, transmitted through learning, that form and guide the beliefs and behavior of people exposed to them

Human Diversity Children learn culture through a process called enculturation Culture includes customs and opinions, developed over the generations, about proper and improper behavior How should we do things? How do we make sense of the world? How do we tell right from wrong? What is right and wrong? Gives consistency in behavior and thought of people in a society

Human Diversity Culture is transmitted through learning, not genetics It does rest on certain feature of human biology Ability to learn, think symbolically, use language, employ tools and other products to organize their lives and adapt

Human Diversity Anthropology confronts and ponders major questions of human existence as it explores human biology and cultural diversity in time and space We are still adapting and changing as a species, both biologically and culturally

Adaptation, Variation, and Change Adaptation: process by which organisms cope with environmental forces, such as those posed by climate and terrain Both biological and cultural

Adaptation, Variation and Change How do humans adapt to high altitude and oxygen deprivation? Cultural: technology such as pressurized airplane cabin with oxygen masks Biological: genetic adaptation (over generations) – larger “barrel chests” of native highlanders Biological: long-term physiological adaptation (during growth and development of the individual organism) – more efficient respiratory system to extra oxygen from “thin air” Biological – short-term physiological adaptation (occurs when an organism enters a new environment) – increased heart rate, hyperventilation

Adaptation, Variation, and Change Social and cultural means of adaptation have become more and more important Rate of cultural adaptation has increased in past 10,000 years For millions of years, hunting and gathering was basis of human survival Only took few thousand years for food production to replace foraging Food production: cultivation of plants and domestication of animals I.E.: Farming/agriculture

Adaptation, Variation, and Change Spread of industrial production has profoundly affected human life Major innovations spread at the expense of earlier ones Each economic revolution has social and cultural repercussions Global economic links, larger systems (region, nation, world)

Adaptation, Variation, and Change Globalization creates new challenge for anthropology Cultures of world peoples need to constantly rediscovered as people reinvent them in changing historical circumstances” (Marcus and Fischer 1986, p. 24)

General Anthropology Anthropology, also called general anthropology or “four field” anthropology contains four main subdisciplines or subfields Sociocultural (also called cultural anthropology) Archaeological Biological Linguistic

General Anthropology Why four subfields? Early American anthropologists wanted to know more of the history and cultures of Native Americans Brought together studies of customs, social life, language, and physical traits Still pondering where Native Americans came from and their links between them and Asia Interest between biology and culture

General Anthropology Why is it still united? Each field considers variations in time and space Each subdiscipline influences the others Ex: Linguists may reconstruct ancient languages by studying modern ones Cultural anthropologists and archaeological anthropologists can exchange information to piece together how ancient societies may have lived Biological anthropologists look at evolutionary changes that may have caused origin or tool use or language Human nature cannot be derived from studying a single nation, society, or cultural tradition

Cultural Forces Shape Human Biology Biocultural: combining biological and cultural approaches to a given problem Culture is key environmental force in determining how human bodies grow and develop Promote certain activities and abilities while discouraging others Set standards of physical well-being and attractiveness

Subdisciplines of Anthropology Ethnography Ethnology Requires field work to collect data Uses data collected by a series of researchers Often descriptive Usually synthetic Group/community specific Comparative/cross-cultural Cultural anthropology: comparative, cross- cultural, study of human society and culture Engage in two types of activities: Ethnography (based on fieldwork): fieldwork in a particular cultural setting Gathers data that they organize, describe, and interpret to build and present that account Usually small communities Ethnology (based on cross-cultural comparison)

Subdisciplines of Anthropology Ethnology examines, interprets, analyzes, and compares the results of ethnography Compare and contrast to make generalizations about society and culture Attempt to identify and explain cultural differences and similarities, test hypotheses, and to build theory to enhance our understanding of how social and cultural systems work Get data from ethnography and other subfields

Subdisciplines of Anthropology Archaeological anthropology is the study of human behavior through material remains Includes tools, weapons, camp site buildings, garbage, plant and animal remains They analyze the data to answer questions about ancient economies and societies

Subdisciplines of Anthropology Archaeologists spend much of their time studying pot shards, fragments of earthenware Textiles and wood are not as durable Ex: Groups with similar pots may be historically related in some way

Subdisciplines of Athropology Many archaeologists examine paleoecology – looking at ecosystems of the past Ecology is the study of interrelations among living things in an environment - ecosystems

Subdisciplines of Anthropology Archaeologists infer cultural transformations from the ecological patterns Example: observing changes in the size and type of sites and the distance between them Reconstruct behavior patterns and lifestyles by excavating (digging through several levels) Over time settlements may change in form as purpose

Subdisciplines of Anthropology Archaeologists also study cultures of historical and living peoples Sunken ships off the Florida coast Looking at contemporary life by studying garbage (Garbology)

Subdisciplines of Anthropology Biological or physical anthropology: study of human biological variation in time and space Five special interests within it: Human evolution as revealed by the fossil record (paleoanthropology) Human genetics Human growth and development Human biological plasticity (ability to change as it copes with stresses such as heat, cold, etc) Biology, evolution, behavior, and social life of monkeys, apes, and other nonhuman primates

Subdisciplines of Anthropology Physical anthropology linked with zoology, biology, geology, anatomy, physiology, medicine, public health. Osteology (study of bones) helps examine skills, teeth, etc to chart changes in anatomy over time Paleoanthropologist is a sort of paleontologist (scientist who studies fossils) who studies fossil record of human evolution Often collaborate with archaeologists

Subdisciplines of Anthropology Different types of tools provide info on habits, customs, lifestyles of ancestral humans Biological anthropology also investigates the influence of environment on the body as it grows and matures Biological anthropology also includes primatology Study biology, evolution, behavior and social life of primates – apes and monkeys Primate behavior may shed light on early human behavior and human nature

Subdisciplines of Anthropologys Linguistic anthropology: study of language and linguistic diversity in time, space and society May never know when out ancestors acquired the ability to speak Some make inferences about universal features of languages linked to uniformities in human brain Others reconstruct ancient languages Some study linguistic differences to discover perceptions and patterns of thought in different cultures

Subdisciplines of Anthropology Historical linguists consider variations in time Ex: changes in sounds, grammar, and vocabulary between Middle and modern English Sociolinguists investigate relationships between social and linguistic variation How do different speakers use a given language? How do linguistic features correlate with social factors?

Middle English vs. Modern English Introduction of the Canterbury Tales in Middle English http://youtu.be/QE0MtENfOMU Middle English opening with modern English next to it: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/CT- prolog-para.html

Anthropology and Other Academic Fields Anthropology uses holism and its unique blend of biological, social, cultural, linguistic, historical, and contemporary perspectives to study people Anthropology is a science – a field of study that seeks reliable explanations, with reference to the material and physical world Also has strong links to the humanities Humanities include English, literature, classics, folklore, philosophies, and the arts

Cultural Anthropology and Sociology Share an interest in social relations, organization, and behavior Difference in kinds of societies each traditionally studied Sociologists – industrial West Anthropologists – nonindustrial Each needed different forms of data collection and analysis

Cultural Anthropology and Sociology Anthropology and sociology now starting to converge Sociologists in more non-industrial countries and anthropologists in industrial nations

Anthropology and Psychology Psychological anthropology studies cross- cultural variation in psychological traits Societies install different values by training children differently Adult personalities reflect a culture’s child- rearing practice

Applied Anthropology Applied anthropology: using anthropology to solve contemporary problems Public health, family planning, business, economic development, and cultural resource management Look at things like: Implications of disease and illness Perceptions of good and bad health

Applied Anthropology Also called public anthropology Cultural resource management Contract archaeology Public education Historic preservation Cultural resource management – deciding what needs saving when entire archaeological sites cannot be saved

The Scientific Method Ethnology is the comparative science that attempts to enhance our understand of how social and cultural systems work Theory – set of ideas formulated to explain something Effective ones can be applied to multiple cases Association – an observed relationship between two or more variables Theories suggest of imply multiple associations and try to explain them The truth of a scientific statement is confirmed by repeated observations

The Scientific Method In social sciences, associations are usually stated in the form of probability than in absolute law Theories suggest patterns, connections, and relationships that may be confirmed by new research Have a research question Why do some societies have long postpartum taboos? Conduct a hypothesis Delaying martial sex reduces infant mortality when diets are low in protein Posit a mechanism Babies get more protein when they nurse longer; nursing in not a reliable method of contraception Get data to test your hypothesis Use a (random) sample of cross-cultural data Devise a way of measuring Code societies when they have a postpartum taboo or one year or longer, 0 when they do not; 1 when diet is low protein, 0 when it is not Analyze your data Notice patterns in the data, use statistical methods to evaluate the strength of associations Draw a conclusion In most cases, the hypothesis is confirmed Derive implications Such taboos tend to disappear when diet gets better or new reproductive technology becomes available Contribute to a larger theory Cultural practice can have adaptive value because they can enhance the survival of offspring

The Scientific Method In anthropology, it does not have to be a single research question Often, the data collected enables them to pose and test a number of separate hypotheses about attitudes and behaviors