Political Violence and Terrorism in Post-War Europe, The End stages of European Terrorism? 1

Defining Terrorism According to the scholar Paul Wilkinson, the key identifiable characteristics of political terror are as follows:  Indiscriminate  Unpredictability  Arbitrariness  Ruthless destructiveness  Implicitly immoral/antinomian

Defining terrorism, cont. A mindless or senseless use of force? Or, a deliberate calibration of violence and fear in order to produce a desired political effect?

Defining Terrorists What role does ideology play in determining whether or not a group(s) can be legitimately labeled “terrorists.” (E.g., “propaganda by the deed,” iconography.) How is violence related to terrorism? (Killing enemies: Casualties of declared wars are regarded as justifiable homicides. Casualties caused by bombings, sabotage, etc. in every other social context are usually associated with terrorism. What role does the media play in defining terrorists and terrorism? (Stereotypes, images of violence, etc.)

Ethics of Terrorism Can any radical social/political movement justify on moral grounds the use of terrorism as a means to an end?

Ethics of Terrorism Is there a moral argument to be made for terrorist acts? (E.g., the so-called “terrorist’s” goal is: (1) to draw attention to “moral” crimes being committed against a group (s) which are being oppressed by the state or the dominant forces of the society in which they live; (2) to punish those guilty of committing such crimes; (3) to advance the “just” cause of those who are engaged in a struggle/warfare with their class and/or ideological enemies.

Depicting Terrorism/terrorists Psychological/Sociological factors:- 1.Stereotyping terrorists: Sociopaths, outsiders, mentally deranged (Unabomber), etc. 2.Media’s role in promoting stereotypes: publicizing and sensationalizing violence and violent deeds. Examples, “Carlos the Jackal”; “Baader-Meinhof gang”. 3.Upholding values and beliefs of status quo? 4.Media “darlings”: Constructing the “romantic revolutionary” for public consumption. Examples, “Baader-Meinhof gang”; “Che” Guevara. 7

Defining terrorism, cont. Terrorism as a means of advancing political goals or exercising political control, e.g., militant nationalist movements (ETA, IRA) and dictatorships (Nazism and Stalinism). Shared terminology: Political terror (style of rule) vs. political terrorism vs. random acts of terrorism.

Cultural Dimension of Terrorism Convergence of Cold War politics and domestic troubles. Years of tensions/crises give way to a more peaceful, prosperous era. 1960s – material well-being and collective realization of the dangers of Cold War confrontations (e.g., Cuban missile crisis, 1962), produce a cultural reaction to the Cold War.

Post-war, cont Radicalism and beyond = Student radicals and intellectuals who forcefully challenged the ideological and economic underpinnings of post-war society (mainly in the capitalist West.) Break-away groups of the 1970s – e.g., Baader-Meinhof (RAF) and Brigate Rosse (BR) -- sought to awaken the revolutionary élan of the workers (masses) by attacking the pillars of the status quo.

1968: A turning point? Year when a new trend of terrorism began: 1.Palestinian air hijackings 2.Black Panther activism in U.S. (Democratic Convention in Chicago) 3.Militant Student movement in France, Italy, W. Germany, and G. Britain 4.Prague Spring

Emergence of a Counter-Culture Escapism – Protest music (Folk songs, anti- war anthems) vs. hedonism (Beatles, Rolling Stones…) Political manifestations – Student revolts in 1968 (France, W. Germany, Italy, Great Britain) Prague Spring of 1968 – “Human Face” of communism? Left-wing radicalism: Neither East nor West? (Anarchism, Maoism, Situationism, Trotskyism)

Voices of Dissent Daniel Cohn-Bendit: Agenda for the New Left. Critique of “old school” of communism: Authoritarian Marxism (Bolshevism), Communist Party of France (PCF), role of trade unions. How is New Left defined? Leading ideological/cultural figures: Albert Camus, Guy Debord (Situationism), Antonio Gramsci, Che Guevara, Mao Zedong. 13

Post-1968 generation Militant radicalism: challenging the prevailing systems with direct action. Baader-Meinhof Brigate Ross Angry Brigade, Action Direct, etc.

Social and Political Context of Terrorism during 1970s and 1980s Rise of xenophobia in W. Europe (immigrant populations, etc.) Persistence of right-wing extremism (neo- Nazis activity in W. Germany, Neo-fascism in Italy and elsewhere.) 15

State responses to new wave of politically- motivated violence/terrorism Repressing dissent and eradicating radicalism (culture of protest = violence). Campaign to discredit messages of Counter- cultural movement. “Us” vs. “Them”: Issues = Vietnam, status quo (economic, political, etc.) of Cold War era…) 16

End of Political Terrorism in Europe? Decline of Cold War tensions: Economic and Political integration of Europe (1986-) Democratization of greater Europe (Western and former “bloc” countries.) Rise of religious conflicts between East and West.

Terrorism in the 21 st Century Terrorism equated with war against western civilization.