Industrial/Organizational Psychology The branch of psychology that is concerned with the study of behavior in work settings and the application of psychology principles to change work behavior.

I/O Psychologists Work With Organizations in the Areas of... Job Analysis - the systematic study of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities of a job and knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) needed to perform it Job Evaluation - an assessment of the relative value of jobs to determine appropriate compensation

I/O Psychologists Work With Organizations in the Areas of... Employee recruitment - the process by which companies attract qualified applicants Employee selection - the process of choosing applicants for employment Employee placement - the process of assigning workers to appropriate jobs

I/O Psychologists Work With Organizations in the Areas of... Performance Appraisal - the formalized means of assessing worker performance in comparison to certain established organizational standards Employee Training - planned organizational efforts to facilitate employee learning of job-related knowledge and behavior

I/O Psychologists Work With Organizations in the Areas of... Employee Motivation - the force that energizes, directs, and sustains work behavior Job Enrichment - designing jobs to give workers greater responsibility in the planning, execution, and evaluation of their work.

I/O Psychologists Work With Organizations in the Areas of... Job Satisfaction - the positive and negative feelings and attitudes about one’s job Leadership - the ability to guide a group toward the achievement of goals Group Dynamics - the nature of groups, including the factors governing their formation and development, elements of their structure, and their interrelationships with individuals, other groups, and organizations

I/O Psychologists Work With Organizations in the Areas of... Organization Development - the process of assisting organizations in preparing for and managing change Organizational Politics - self-serving actions designed to affect the behavior of others to achieve personal goals Human Factors - a specialty area of I/O psychology focused on designing tools, machines, work systems, and work places to fit workers

Training I/O Psychology Masters Degree or PhD. Society for I/O Psychology (SIOP): Division 14 of the American Psychological Association (APA) - www.siop.org The Scientist/Practitioner Model - the I-O psychologist is frequently both the generator of knowledge and the consumer/user of such knowledge

Careers in I/O Psychology

Careers in I/O Psychology Academics: Teach and conduct research in higher-educational settings. Teach and supervise students Conduct and publish research Top Tier Journals in I/O psychology include Journal of Applied Psychology, Personnel Psychology, Academy of Management Journal

Careers in I/O Psychology Practitioners: Apply principles of I/O psychology to organizational processes. Internal Consultants External Consultants

Careers in I/O Psychology Employment Stability - the unemployment rate for I/O psychologists is approximately .5% Financial Security - average salary for consultants is approximately $120,000 (academicians make much less!) Intrinsically Interesting - a wide range of topics that are important in peoples lives

Trends in I/O Psychology The changing nature of work Expanding focus on human resources Increasing diversity of the workforce Increasing globalization of business

Early History of I/O Psychology 1879, William Wundt established the first lab for studying psychology. 1897, Bryan & Harter published, Studies of the physiology and psychology of the telegraphic language. 1903, Walter D. Scott wrote, The Theory of Advertising. Scott pioneered (and popularized) the application of psychology to advertising and employee selection and placement. 1. Psychology - 120 as a science 2. B & H Examined how professional telegraphers developed skill in sending and receiving Morse Code. 3. Bryan, then president of APA, was an early proponent of applying psychology to understand aspects of “everyday life.” 4. W. D Scott was a pioneer BOTH in the field consumer psychology and I/O psychology. His other books included, Influencing Men in Business and Increasing Human Efficiency in Business.

Early History of I/O Psychology 1905, Alfred Binet published the first intelligence test. 1911, Frederick Taylor wrote Scientific Management. Time and motion studies. 1913, Hugo Munsterberg wrote Industrial Efficiency. Munsterberg’s most famous study examined the skills required to safely operate a trolley car. 1. The individual differences tradition of research on intelligence fit with employee selection objectives of organizations. Cog. Ab. Tests were commonly used for military assignment in WWI. 2. Taylor was an engineer. Trailblazer in the practice of job design. 3. Time and motion studies sought to eliminate waste and inefficiency through cost reduction, work method improvement, and reducing work fatigue. 4. In one study, Taylor showed that workers handling heavey iron ingets were more productive if they had work breaks. Training workers when to work and when to rest increased average productivity from 12.5 to 47 tons moved per day. 5. Munsterber is probably the most highly regarded forefather of I/O psychology. Brought to Harvard by William James, M. trained many.

Early History of I/O Psychology 1917, Frank & Lillian Gilbreth wrote Applied Motion Study. 1917, Journal of Applied Psychology published its first volume. Hall, Baird, & Geissler suggested the applied psychology could provide a direct method for “decreasing the number of cases where a square peg is condemned to a life of fruitless endeavor to fit itself comfortably into a round hole.” 1. Lillian G. was one of the first women in I/O 2. Gillbreths advanced the practice of time and motion studies. They developed a system for breaking down work tasks to their basic elements of motion, Therbligs. 3. Other titles in the first, JAP: Practical relations between psychology and the war. The moron as a war problem.

Early History of I/O Psychology 1918, World War I and I/O psychologists contribute to America’s war effort. Robert Yerkes developed cognitive ability tests for the Army, the Alpha and Beta. Walter D. Scott developed systems for the placement of personnel and performance management. 1921, First PhD in I/O psychology awarded. 1921, James Cattell establishes the Psychological Corporation.

Early History of I/O Psychology 1924, Elton Mayo and colleagues began research at the Hawthorne works of the Western Electric Co. on how environmental conditions (e.g.., lighting) affected employee performance. The Hawthorne Effect Human relations movement 1932, Morris Viteles writes first I/O psychology textbook.

Early History of I/O Psychology 1941, World War II and I/O psychologists do their part again. Army General Classification Test U.S. Office of Strategic Service use situation stress tests to assess candidates for military intelligence placement. 1945, Society for Industrial and Business Psychology established as Division 14 of APA. Now it’s SIOP (see www.siop.org)

Early History of I/O Psychology 1948, Personnel Psychology published its first volume. 1951, The Dearborn Conference Group met for the first time. 1954, Technical Recommendations of Psychological Tests and Diagnostic Techniques published. 1955, Ethical Principles of Psychologists published.

Early History of I/O Psychology 1964, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act forbade discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, gender, or national origin. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) created to oversee compliance to Title VII. Increased accountability for I/O psychologists to implement valid and unbiased testing processes.

Early History of I/O Psychology 1964, The Industrial/Organizational Psychologist (TIP) publishes its first volume. 1971, In Griggs v. Duke Power Co. the Supreme Court establishes that employee selection devices must be job related. 1978, Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures is released. Reinforces the importance of job analysis.

Early History of I/O Psychology 1976, Handbook for I/O Psychology published. 1990-94 revised Handbook volumes published. 1986, SIOP holds its first annual national conference. 1986, First U.S. Supreme Court ruling on sexual harassment

Research Methods in I/O Psychology Outline  Steps in the research process  Types of research designs  Statistical concepts

Scientific Method Requires a precise vocabulary. Has rules for collecting and organizing data. Based on a system of logic for decisions (called inferences) about the meaning of observations. Requires verification of these inferences. Goals of research: Describe Predict Exolain

Step #1 of Research Process: Formulation of a problem Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning Intuition/Common Sense Research Applied business problems Previous research Intuition/common sense - old sayings “misery loves company” “many hands make light work.” Analyzing songs “?” Shakespeare to tabloids. Television commercials

Step #2 of Research Process: Generation of hypotheses Variables The elements that are measured in research investigations Operational definitions Examples of variables in I/O research

Step #2 of Research Process: Generation of hypotheses Statements used in research methods concerning the supposed relationships between or among variables Statements that guide what research methods are used Examples of hypotheses

Step #2 of Research Process: Generation of hypotheses Theory or Model The organization of certain beliefs into a representation of the factors that affect behavior. A source of hypotheses or the result of tested hypotheses Example of a theory

Step #3 of Research Process: Choosing a Research Design Overview of Research Designs Case study Correlational Experimental : Field and Laboratory Meta-analysis Practical Considerations of Research Designs for I/O Psychology

Step #4 of Research Process: Collection of Data Sampling Methods for selecting participants in a study. Population vs sample Sample Size: Statistical and practical significance Intuitoin/common sense - old sayings “misery loves company” “many hands make light work.” Analyzing songs “?” Shakespeare to tabloids. Television commercials

Step #4 of Research Process: Collection of Data Sampling Types of sampling Random Systematic Stratified Convenience Intuitoin/common sense - old sayings “misery loves company” “many hands make light work.” Analyzing songs “?” Shakespeare to tabloids. Television commercials

Step #5 of Research Process: Collection of Data Measurement of Variables Types of Measures Self-report Observation Objective outcomes Observations - Job Analysis, Performance Appraisal -- differ in degree of structure, contemporanious or retrospective Self-report - Interview, employee surveys Objective outcomes -- absenteeism, turnover, profit

Step #5 of Research Process: Collection of Data Measurement of Variables Types of response formats Likert-type Semantic Differential Fixed alternative Open-ended Observations - Job Analysis, Performance Appraisal -- differ in degree of structure, contemporanious or retrospective Self-report - Interview, employee surveys Objective outcomes -- absenteeism, turnover, profit

Step #6 of Research Process: Analyses of Data Qualitative vs. quantitative analyses Descriptive vs. inferential statistics Using computers to analyze data Understanding analyses conducted in published research Inferential stats - inferring to probability that the results did not occur by chance alone (sampling error?)

Step #7 of Research Process: Interpretation of Research Results Determining whether the hypothesis was supported Assessing alternative interpretations for the data Serendipity Research is a cumulative process Inferential stats - inferring to probability that the results did not occur by chance alone (sampling error?)

Research Designs: Case Studies A one-time-only assessment of behavior or the application of an intervention to only a single group, department, or organization.

Research Designs: Case Studies Limitations - Cannot draw any firm conclusions - Usually lacks systematic measurement - Cannot address cause and effect Advantages - Generate future hypotheses - High in realism - Can examine topics difficult to study with other designs.

Research Designs: Correlational Studies Examines the relationship among or between variables as they naturally occur. Questions Addressed: - Does a relationship exist? - How strong is the relationship? - What direction is the relationship?

Research Designs: Correlational Studies Advantages: - Relatively easy to conduct research - Can examine topics difficult to research with other methods Disadvantages: - Cannot address cause and effect

Research Designs: Experimental Studies A research design characterized by a high degree of control over the research setting to allow for the determination of cause-and-effect relationship among variables.

Research Designs: Experimental Studies Three conditions must be present: - a variable must be manipulated - random assignment of participants to experimental groups. - control of extraneous and confounding variables.

Research Designs: Experimental Studies The terminology of experiments: - Independent Variable (IV) - Dependent Variables (DV) - Internal Validity - External Validity

Research Designs: Experimental Studies Laboratory settings Offer the greatest level of control Cause-and-effect interpretations Field settings Natural settings Quasi-experiments

Research Designs: Experimental Studies Advantages Helps to explain human behavior at work through cause-and-effect inferences. Controls for alternative explanations for research findings.

Research Designs: Experimental Studies Disadvantages Cost Demand Characteristics Hawthorne Effect External Validity Issues Participants ecological validity

Research Designs: Meta-Analysis A technique that allows for several different research studies to be combined and summarized.

Research Designs: Meta-Analysis Advantages Provides a better estimate of the “true” relationship between variables than the results of a single study. Disadvantages Garbage in garbage out File drawer effect

Descriptive Analyses Frequency Distribution Measures of Central Tendency Mode Median Mean Measures of Variance Range Standard Deviation

Distributions of Data

Inferential Analyses Inferential statistics are used for analyzing data to test hypotheses. Statistical significance refers to the probability of a particular result occurring by chance, used to determine the meaning of research outcomes. p < .05 means that the probability that the finding are due to chance alone is less than 5 in 100.

Inferential Analyses

Inferential Analyses Analyses for Experimental Designs t-tests Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) One-way ANOVA Factorial ANOVA Main Effect Interaction Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA)

Inferential Analyses Analyses for Correlational Designs Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient represented by r can range from -1 to +1 the sign of the r indicates whether the variables are positively or negatively related the absolute value of r indicates the strength of the relationship. The closer to |1 |, the stronger the relationship. An absolute value of 1 indicates a perfect relationship and a value of 0 indicates no relationship Correlation does not imply causality

Other Statistical Analyses Multiple Regression - assesses the relationship between multiple predictors and a single criterion. Factor Analysis - methods of reducing a large number of variables to a smaller number of variables, or “factors”. Structural Equation Modeling - a statistical technique that “simultaneously” examines the relationships among many variables.

Ethical Considerations for Research in I/O Psychology Confidentiality Informed Consent “Overselling” Research Results APA’s Ethical Principles in the Conduct of Research