Electronic Counters

Abstract Electronic counters come in two flavors: asynchronous and synchronous. Asynchronous counter encode a count sequence by directly connecting flip-flops and allowing the clock-pulse to ripple through the cascade. Synchronous counters use a common clock and logic between flip-flops to encode the count sequence. Asynchronous counters are simpler because they do not require logic gates, but any latency will scale linearly with respect to the number of bits. Synchronous counters are more complex but constrain the latency. If the cumulative latency is greater than the maximum allowable cycle time, then a synchronous architecture is preferable. If the application is not sensitive to false errors produced by latency, however, an asynchronous counter alone or with over-clocking (in the event that cumulative latency is greater than the cycle time) may be feasible. Alternatively filters, such as a strobing circuit, can be used to remove erroneous outputs caused by latency from the output.

Memory devices : Flip flops Systems : Counters Output Memory devices : Flip flops Input Flip Flop Clock Logic gates Input 2 Output’ Transistors And diodes - + N P Solid State Physics

Electronic counter Addressable Memory device I/O signals Flip flop Wires Counter Architecture Asynchronous Synchronous

A bit is a two-state object, such as a flip-flop. Electronic flip-flop State 1

A collection of n bits can encode 2^n information levels (states). 1 All possible information levels for three bits 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

Each information level can represent a number. State 1 All possible information levels for three bits 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Bits oscillating with proportional frequencies encode count sequence. 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Bit 1 Bit 2 Bit 3

Counter system architecture connects bits (JK flip-flops) to produce this frequency pattern. 1 Bit 2 Bit 3

Asynchronous

Couple two two bits so that inverse output from bit 1 is trigger for bit 2. Inverter

Bit 1 output and inverted output Trigger 1 Output 1 Output 1 Inverted

Bit 1 inverse output serves as clock for bit 2 Bit 1 inverse output serves as clock for bit 2. Triggers state change at positive going transitions. Output 1 Inverted Trigger 2 Output 2

2 outputs of proportional frequency produce the count sequence 00 01 10 11 1 2 3 4

But if there is a delay between command to toggle and response … Latency JK Flip-Flop “Trigger” “Trigger” Toggle: Change State AND “Enable” Bit State Delay, D

… latency scales linearly wrt # of bits Ideal Observed Clock 1 D Bit 1 Clock 2 D Bit 2 Accumulated latency = n*d, for counter of n bits

And results in an erroneous count. Ideal Observed Clock 1 D Bit 1 Clock 2 D Bit 2 01 (2) 10 (3) 01 01 00 (1) 10

But if accumulated delay occurs before clock returns to low state … Accumulated delay = (n-1)*d Clock n Accumulated delay = (n)*d Bit n

… let error ripple through the system when clock is high, then read output when the clock is low. “Strobing” circuit Clock 1 Low enable is True Bit 1 Clock 2 Bit 2 01 10 Then read bits to produce correct output

Problem: delay limits clock speed … Clock frequency must be set allow cumulative delay to ripple through cascade of bits during the high level of the trigger. Thus, the length of ½ cycle > length of cumulative delay Clock n Cumulative delay = (n)*d Bit n

synchronous counter that avoids “rippling” is preferable. In applications where false outputs from propagation delay produces errors and where speed is important, synchronous counter that avoids “rippling” is preferable.

Synchronous

Couple enable to logic gate that processes output from prior bits : when all prior bits are high, then 1 passed to bit and output toggles. JK Flip-Flop “Trigger” Toggle Output AND “Inputs” Prior Bits

Synchronous counter: each bit holds its state until all preceding bits are high and positive clock pulse. Q1 Q2 Q3 And High 1 2 3 Clock Clock Q1 1 1 1 1 Q2 1 1 Q3 1 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Bits flip simultaneously, with same latency : D: latency of flip-flop no false outputs Clock Bit 4 trigger 1 D: latency of flip-flop Bit 1 1 1 Bit 2 Bit 4 enable: Logic gate inputs 1 1 Bit 3 1 1 Bit 4 Bit 4 state 1 Time 1 Time 2: Flip

Compare synchronous to asynchronous … Clock D Grows to 4*D Bit 1 Bit 2 Bit 3 Bit 4 Latency for synchronous fixed and no false outputs but is synchronous is 4*D by 4th flip-flop, necessitating measures (“strobing circuit”) to prevent errors and thus limiting speed.

Knowing … Clock Clock Clock n Bit n 1. Cumulative latency for asynchronous counter 2. Minimum acceptable clock speed Clock Clock Maximum acceptable cycle time Clock n Small clock speed has long cycle time … Clock is as long as one can make it … Bit n Latency

Decision … Synchronous Architecture Asynchronous Architecture Is cumulative latency > maximum cycle time? Yes No Do false outputs resulting from latency cause errors? Synchronous Architecture Asynchronous Architecture No Small clock speed has long cycle time … Clock is as long as one can make it … Yes Is cumulative latency < ½ maximum cycle time? With strobing circuit to “block” output during high level in clock cycle. No Yes