Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 1 Professional Development Course on Catering for Diversity in English Language Teaching ENG5315 The Characteristics of Diversity Session 7 Issues of diversity in a second language classroom & characteristics of students with LD in reading, writing and spoken language

Issues of diversity in a second language classroom

3 Difference in what? Second language proficiency First language Transferability of skills from one language to another Aptitude Personality Extroverted learners vs. introverted learners

4 Difference in what? Attitude Motivation Integrative vs. instrumental Learning style e.g. tolerance of ambiguity; reflective or impulsive; oriented toward imagery; holistic, analytical, or logical

5 acculturation / assimilation inclusion equity

“Education for a culturally, linguistically, and socio-economically diverse population” (Chong, 2007, p. 54)

7 Children with special needs Children with special needs are those who need special educational support because they have learning difficulties of several kinds (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2005).

8 SEN Hearing impairment Visual impairment Physical handicap Mental handicap Emotional and behavioral difficulties Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder Autism Communication difficulties Specific learning difficulties Giftedness (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2002).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 9 What are the elements of spoken language? Language can be divided into two major categories: receptive and expressive language. Language can be divided into two major categories: receptive and expressive language. It can be further subdivided into major elements: phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. It can be further subdivided into major elements: phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics.

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 10 Receptive and expressive language Receptive language Receptive language How skilled is the listener in understanding what is heard? Expressive language Expressive language The production of language

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 11 Difficulties of children with learning disabilities in receptive and expressive language Most learning difficulties exist in the area of expressive, not receptive, language. Most learning difficulties exist in the area of expressive, not receptive, language. Dysarthia: Difficulty with the production of speech sounds. Dysarthia: Difficulty with the production of speech sounds.

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 12 Language components Language is generally regarded as having three components (or elements): form, content, and use (Bloom & Lahey, 1978). Language is generally regarded as having three components (or elements): form, content, and use (Bloom & Lahey, 1978). Form: the rules by which a language is governed. Form: the rules by which a language is governed. Content: what we listen to and read, talk, and write about. Content: what we listen to and read, talk, and write about. Use: the purpose of language. Use: the purpose of language.

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 13 Phonology Phonology is the study of the individual sound units in a language and the rules by which these units are combined to create larger language units (Raymond, 2008). Phonology is the study of the individual sound units in a language and the rules by which these units are combined to create larger language units (Raymond, 2008). The smallest unit of sound is called a phoneme. The smallest unit of sound is called a phoneme.

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 14 Morphology Morphology is the study of words and how they are formed (Kuder, 2008). Morphology is the study of words and how they are formed (Kuder, 2008). A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a language. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a language.

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 15 Syntax Syntax is the study of rules that govern how words are put together to make phrases and sentences (Kuder, 2008). Syntax is the study of rules that govern how words are put together to make phrases and sentences (Kuder, 2008).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 16 Semantics Semantics is the study of the meanings of words and words in sentences (Hallahan, Lloyd, Kauffman, Weiss, & Martinez, 2005). Semantics is the study of the meanings of words and words in sentences (Hallahan, Lloyd, Kauffman, Weiss, & Martinez, 2005).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 17 Pragmatics Pragmatics refers to ‘the use of language to express one’s intentions and to get things done in the world’ (Gleason, 2005, p. 23). Pragmatics refers to ‘the use of language to express one’s intentions and to get things done in the world’ (Gleason, 2005, p. 23).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 18 Characteristics of students with LD in spoken language: Autism spectrum disorders (ASD)

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 19 Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) A group of disorders that includes autism. A group of disorders that includes autism. Autistic behavior lies on a continuum (or spectrum) of severity (Kuder, 2008). Autistic behavior lies on a continuum (or spectrum) of severity (Kuder, 2008). The number and severity of symptoms may vary, but the disorders have several characteristics in common. The number and severity of symptoms may vary, but the disorders have several characteristics in common.

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 20 Autism spectrum disorders (ASD): Characteristics Impairments in social interaction Impairments in social interaction Withdrawal from contact with others / little or no social interaction. Withdrawal from contact with others / little or no social interaction. Fail to make eye contact with others. Fail to make eye contact with others. Impairments in language and communication Impairments in language and communication Significant delays in language development (Kuder, 2008). Significant delays in language development (Kuder, 2008).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 21 Difficulties in specific language domains Phonology Considerable trouble with suprasegmental features of sound production. Considerable trouble with suprasegmental features of sound production. Fluctuations in vocal intensity. Fluctuations in vocal intensity. Often may speak in a monotone. Often may speak in a monotone. Repeat sounds and/or words, making their speech very hard to follow (Kuder, 2008). Repeat sounds and/or words, making their speech very hard to follow (Kuder, 2008).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 22 Difficulties in specific language domains Pragmatics Significant impairments in the pragmatic aspects of language. Significant impairments in the pragmatic aspects of language. Very unresponsive (Loveland, Landry, Hughes, Hall, & McEvoy, 1988). Very unresponsive (Loveland, Landry, Hughes, Hall, & McEvoy, 1988). Rarely initiate communication spontaneously and also produce fewer communicative acts (Kuder, 2008). Rarely initiate communication spontaneously and also produce fewer communicative acts (Kuder, 2008).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 23 Asperger’s syndrome and autism Asperger’s syndrome A developmental disorder falling within the autistic spectrum. A developmental disorder falling within the autistic spectrum. A less severe form of autism. A less severe form of autism. Children with Asperger’s syndrome usually have deficiencies in social interaction. Children with Asperger’s syndrome usually have deficiencies in social interaction. However, they have much better language and cognitive skills than children with autism (Kuder, 2008). However, they have much better language and cognitive skills than children with autism (Kuder, 2008).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 24 Key features of Asperger’s syndrome Children with Asperger’s syndrome have poor social skills Children with Asperger’s syndrome have poor social skills Spoken language can sometimes be odd Spoken language can sometimes be odd Narrow interests Narrow interests Repetitive routines and inflexibility Repetitive routines and inflexibility

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 25 Language and communication difficulties of children with Asperger’s syndrome Failure to adjust their language production in response to the context. Failure to adjust their language production in response to the context. Shifting conversational topics abruptly (Kuder, 2008). Shifting conversational topics abruptly (Kuder, 2008).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 26 Characteristics of students with LD in spoken language: Attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 27 Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Characteristics Have a short attention span Have a short attention span Poor concentration Poor concentration Easily distracted Easily distracted Have difficulty listening Have difficulty listening Forgetful Forgetful Impatient (Cheminais, 2000) Impatient (Cheminais, 2000)

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 28 Language and communication difficulties of children with ADHD The inability to concentrate on the relevant features of a conversation results in the children making off- topic contributions (Raymond, 2008). The inability to concentrate on the relevant features of a conversation results in the children making off- topic contributions (Raymond, 2008).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 29 Characteristics of students with LD in spoken language: Hearing impairment

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 30 Language and communication difficulties of children with hearing impairment Problems of language form Problems of language form Problem of language use (pragmatics) Problem of language use (pragmatics) Problems with conversational turn- taking Problems with conversational turn- taking Inappropriate shifts in topic (Haynes, Moran, & Pindzola, 2006) Inappropriate shifts in topic (Haynes, Moran, & Pindzola, 2006)

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 31 What are the major elements of reading? There are two major components of reading: decoding and comprehending. There are two major components of reading: decoding and comprehending.

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 32 Decoding and comprehending Decoding Decoding The mechanical aspect of converting print to spoken language (Hallahan, Lloyd, Kauffman, Weiss, & Martinez, 2005). Comprehending Comprehending The higher-order aspects of reading in which one extracts meaning from language (Hallahan, Lloyd, Kauffman, Weiss, & Martinez, 2005).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 33 What problems do children with learning disabilities have in reading? Problems with phonology Problems with phonology Deficits in phonemic awareness play a central role in the problems of children who have difficulty learning to read (Hallahan, Lloyd, Kauffman, Weiss, & Martinez, 2005). Deficits in phonemic awareness play a central role in the problems of children who have difficulty learning to read (Hallahan, Lloyd, Kauffman, Weiss, & Martinez, 2005).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 34 What problems do children with learning disabilities have in reading? Problems with decoding Problems with decoding Grapheme-phoneme associations Grapheme-phoneme associations Problems with fluency Problems with fluency Problems with comprehension Problems with comprehension

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 35 Characteristics of students with LD in reading: Dyslexia

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 36 Dyslexia: General characteristics Persistent difficulty in learning the components of words and sentences. Persistent difficulty in learning the components of words and sentences. A delayed language development. A delayed language development. Problems in spelling. Problems in spelling. Spatial directional confusion results in difficulty in differentiating letters that look similar Spatial directional confusion results in difficulty in differentiating letters that look similar Reversals of letters Reversals of letters Oral reading is marked by slow, word-by-word reading. Oral reading is marked by slow, word-by-word reading. Mispronounce a word but still know what the text says (Mercer, 1997). Mispronounce a word but still know what the text says (Mercer, 1997).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 37 Phonological and orthographic dyslexia Phonological dyslexia Cannot sound out words very well and thus, have trouble reading new words. Cannot sound out words very well and thus, have trouble reading new words. Might drop some sounds from words. Might drop some sounds from words. Might not be able to figure out that blends like /fl/ or /str/ have more than one phoneme to them (Hultquist, 2006). Might not be able to figure out that blends like /fl/ or /str/ have more than one phoneme to them (Hultquist, 2006).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 38 Phonological and orthographic dyslexia Orthographic dyslexia Problems with orthographic processing leads to trouble with reading and spelling because orthographic processing deals with the written symbols of language. Problems with orthographic processing leads to trouble with reading and spelling because orthographic processing deals with the written symbols of language. Able to work with the sounds of language but have trouble remembering what letters or words look like. Able to work with the sounds of language but have trouble remembering what letters or words look like.

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 39 Phonological and orthographic dyslexia Orthographic dyslexia (Con’t) Might have trouble remembering the difference between the letters b, d, and p. Might have trouble remembering the difference between the letters b, d, and p. Might confuse words that look alike. Might confuse words that look alike. Often read very slowly and make a lot of errors when there are a lot of words on a page. Often read very slowly and make a lot of errors when there are a lot of words on a page. Might also skip lines when they read (Hultquist, 2006). Might also skip lines when they read (Hultquist, 2006).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 40 Two major types of dyslexic problems Auditory dyslexia Cannot perceive discrete sounds of spoken language. Cannot perceive discrete sounds of spoken language. Have difficulty discriminating sounds. Have difficulty discriminating sounds. Unable to associate specific sounds with their printed symbols, thus have great difficulty with spelling. Unable to associate specific sounds with their printed symbols, thus have great difficulty with spelling.

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 41 Two major types of dyslexic problems Visual dyslexia Cannot correctly translate printed language symbols into meaning. Cannot correctly translate printed language symbols into meaning. May see certain letters backward and upside down. May see certain letters backward and upside down. Also may see parts of words in reverse. Also may see parts of words in reverse. Students become frustrated trying to read whole words of a sentence (Johnson & Myklebust, 1967, cited in Mercer, 1997). Students become frustrated trying to read whole words of a sentence (Johnson & Myklebust, 1967, cited in Mercer, 1997).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 42 Specific difficulties of dyslexic children Phonological processing difficulties Phonological processing difficulties are fundamental to dyslexia (Snowling, 1995; Lundberg & Hoien, 2001). Phonological processing difficulties are fundamental to dyslexia (Snowling, 1995; Lundberg & Hoien, 2001). Dyslexic children may have difficulty in detecting phonemes and linking phonemes to graphemes (Riddick, Wolfe, & Lumsdon, 2001). Dyslexic children may have difficulty in detecting phonemes and linking phonemes to graphemes (Riddick, Wolfe, & Lumsdon, 2001).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 43 Specific difficulties of dyslexic children Visual processing deficits Difficulty in recognizing letters, with frequent misidentification especially of visually similar letters. Difficulty in recognizing letters, with frequent misidentification especially of visually similar letters. Poor word recognition even for high frequency words (Willows & Terepocki, 1993). Poor word recognition even for high frequency words (Willows & Terepocki, 1993).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 44 Reading comprehension difficulties of dyslexic children Poor reading comprehension because of weak decoding skills. Poor reading comprehension because of weak decoding skills. In some cases, dyslexic children may misread so many words that they can’t understand what is written. In some cases, dyslexic children may misread so many words that they can’t understand what is written. In other cases, their rate of decoding is so slow that by the time they come to the end of a sentence or paragraph, they cannot recall what has come before (Sanders, 2001). In other cases, their rate of decoding is so slow that by the time they come to the end of a sentence or paragraph, they cannot recall what has come before (Sanders, 2001).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 45 Students who experience difficulties with writing Written expression requires skills in three major areas: handwriting, spelling, and composition (Hallahan, Lloyd, Kauffman, Weiss, & Martinez, 2005). Written expression requires skills in three major areas: handwriting, spelling, and composition (Hallahan, Lloyd, Kauffman, Weiss, & Martinez, 2005).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 46 Characteristics of students with LD in writing: Dysgraphia

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 47 What is dysgraphia? A learning disability that affects writing abilities. A learning disability that affects writing abilities. It can manifest itself as difficulties with spelling, poor handwriting and trouble putting thoughts on paper (National Center for Learning Disabilities, ). It can manifest itself as difficulties with spelling, poor handwriting and trouble putting thoughts on paper (National Center for Learning Disabilities, ).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 48 Specific difficulties of children with dysgraphia Illegible handwriting Illegible handwriting Irregular and inconsistent letter formations Irregular and inconsistent letter formations Write legibly but very slowly and/or very small Write legibly but very slowly and/or very small Ability to express ideas is interfered (International Dyslexia Association, ) Ability to express ideas is interfered (International Dyslexia Association, )

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 49 Three types of dysgraphia Dyslexic dysgraphia Dyslexic dysgraphia Spontaneously written text is illegible. Spontaneously written text is illegible. Oral spelling is poor. Oral spelling is poor. Copying of written text is normal. Copying of written text is normal.

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 50 Three types of dysgraphia Motor dysgraphia Motor dysgraphia Both spontaneously written and copied text may be illegible. Both spontaneously written and copied text may be illegible. Oral spelling is normal. Oral spelling is normal.

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 51 Three types of dysgraphia Spatial dysgraphia Spatial dysgraphia Illegible writing, whether spontaneously produced or copied. Illegible writing, whether spontaneously produced or copied. Oral spelling is normal. Oral spelling is normal.

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 52 Diagnosis of dysgraphia Dysgraphia cannot be diagnosed solely by looking at handwriting samples. Dysgraphia cannot be diagnosed solely by looking at handwriting samples. Not only the finished product is assessed, but also the process (The International Dyslexia Association, ). Not only the finished product is assessed, but also the process (The International Dyslexia Association, ).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 53 Characteristics of students with LD in writing: Dyspraxia

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 54 Types of developmental dyspraxia Oral dyspraxia Oral dyspraxia A difficulty with executing non-speech sounds.

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 55 Types of developmental dyspraxia Verbal dyspraxia Verbal dyspraxia A speech disorder that affects the initiating of movements required to make speech sounds. Children with verbal dyspraxia may: display highly unintelligible speech display highly unintelligible speech have delayed expressive language have delayed expressive language

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 56 Types of developmental dyspraxia Motor dyspraxia Motor dyspraxia A difficulty in sequencing and executing the correct movement to perform age appropriate skills in a coordinated manner. Children with motor dyspraxia may have difficulty with: coordination including awkwardness in walk, clumsiness, or trouble with throwing and catching a ball coordination including awkwardness in walk, clumsiness, or trouble with throwing and catching a ball holding a pen or pencil properly holding a pen or pencil properly handwriting handwriting age appropriate skills age appropriate skills learning rules (Australian Dyspraxia Association Inc., ) learning rules (Australian Dyspraxia Association Inc., )

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 57 Specific difficulties of children with dyspraxia: Handwriting Poor handwriting is one of the most common symptoms of dyspraxia. Poor handwriting is one of the most common symptoms of dyspraxia. The handwriting difficulties experienced by children with dyspraxia: The handwriting difficulties experienced by children with dyspraxia: Poor pencil grip. Poor pencil grip. Abnormal posture. Abnormal posture. Incorrect letter formation. Incorrect letter formation. Erratic sizing of letter forms. Erratic sizing of letter forms. Poor alignment of writing on the page. Poor alignment of writing on the page. Inconsistent spacing between words, either no spaces, too narrow or too wide (Dixon & Addy, 2004). Inconsistent spacing between words, either no spaces, too narrow or too wide (Dixon & Addy, 2004).

Prepared by Ruby Yang, Department of English, The Hong Kong Institute of Education 58 (Handwriting of a Form 5 dyspraxic boy)

59 Inclusive education in Hong Kong What are the obstacles in pursuing inclusive education in Hong Kong?