Borders and borderlands South Sudan GEOG 220 – Geopolitics

“Borders were drawn essentially according to the geopolitical, economic and administrative interests of the colonial powers, often taken into account at a global scale. The most often cited example is that of the division of the Hausaland, between today’s Niger and Nigeria. The Franco- British treaties of 1904 and 1906 redrew the border in favor of the French side, in exchange for France’s renunciation of fishing rights off the coast of Newfoundland” (Miles, 1994: 68). MILES, WILLIAM F.S. (1994): Hausaland Divided: Colonialism and Independence in Nigeria and Niger. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

Arbitrariness => divisions resulting in divided communities, minorities that can be oppressed, livelihoods complicated (pastoralism) Yet … Asset for state consolidation “Many resolutions adopted by the OAU continually strengthen the territorial foundation of the African States and their respective frontiers. Resolution A.G.H/16.1 of July 21, 1964, to cite just one, incorporates the rule of uti possidetis: ‘All the member States are committed to respect the frontiers existing at the time of their independence.’” … very few changes, but Ethiopia/Eritrea and Sudan/South Sudan

Why establish borders? Colonial competition … and conflict avoidance Colonial state => distinction between ‘native’ and ‘non-native’ Politicization of indigenousness Reinforce divides through spatial segregation and bifurcated legal codes Post-colonial state => citizenship as right of ‘native’, excluding ‘non-natives’ and ‘settlers’. Berlin Conference

1820: Sudan is conquered by Turkey and Egypt. 1881: Rebellion against the Turkish-Egyptian administration. 1882: The British invade Sudan. 1885: An Islamic state is founded in Sudan 1899: Sudan is governed by British-Egyptian rule. 1947: Juba Conference to convince Southern Chiefs to seat in “national” assembly in Khartoum => integration of the South into Sudan 1955: Southern revolt and start of the civil war. 1956: Sudan gains independence. 1958: A military coup takes place in Sudan. The civilian government is removed.

From ‘Southern Policy’ to integration… “I believe that our policy regarding these areas should be restated as follows:-"The policy of the Sudan Government regarding the Southern Sudan is to act upon the facts that the peoples of Southern Sudan are distinctly African and Negroid, but that geography and economics combine (so far as can be foreseen at the present time) to render them inextricably bound for future development to the Middle East and Arabs of the Northern Sudan and therefore to ensure that they shall be educational and economic developments be equipped to take their places in the future as socially and economically the equals of their partners of the Northern Sudan in the Sudan of the future”. B.V. Marwood, Governor of Equatoria, confidential report on the ‘Juba Conference’ June 1947

Southern Sudanese struggle for independence

Cold War: Mengistu, Nimeiri, Bush and Chevron

Oil and war(s) in the Sudan Oil finds around Bentiu – Nimeiri reluctant to see oil finds in South – Southern oil fields discovered ( ) – ‘Unity’ State created – Oil infrastructure to be directed northward – Southern rebel movement target oil sector – Chevron suspends work 1984 and sell off in 1992 to private Sudanese, resold to Canadian juniors (Arakis, Talisman), JV with CNPC, Petronas – ‘Peace Agreement’ with SPLM splintered faction allows infrastructure construction

China comes to play leading role

So do some ‘western’ companies “ We work without regard to political risk. It is so difficult to make large oil- and mining discoveries that, if you also limit yourself to countries which are politically secure you would not have a chance… The only thing that is important for us is that what we are looking for can be really big.” Adolf Lundin, Chairman of Lundin Oil AB, August 1996

Comprehensive Peace Agreement (2005) Military dead-lock Reunited SPLM/A Post-9/11 US pressure  Interim period  Referendum 2011

‘Wealth Sharing’: Oil Million $

Referendum Jan. 2011

Independence on 9 July 2011

Main border issues Groups identifying with the south are now in the north => continue fighting against north, north suspects south of assisting rebellion (SPLA-North) Disputed areas become militarized, incl. Abyei with skirmishes and large population displacements Oil from fields in the south flowing via the north => mutual interest turned into mutual ‘economic self-destruction’ (98.5% of non-aid government budget for South Sudan) Traded goods from the north for northern areas of the south => local populations affected by border closure

200,000 refugees in South Sudan 500,000 affected by conflict in South Kordofan and Blue Nile

Jammam – Displaced people from Blue Nile

Cross border oil flows South Sudan gets 75% oil, incl. largest reserves $32/bbl ‘transit fee’ demanded by Khartoum Diversion of Southern oil to Northern refineries Loading of ‘Northern’ tankers with Southern oil Little response from the ‘international community’ Chinese ‘diplomatic’ interventions fail Deadlock by Jan 2012

“We’ll Eat Sand”: Shutting down oil  98% of fiscal revenue for South Sudan Historical grievances SPLM political register Growing criticism of corruption Few alternative options Personal agendas

Renewed conflict and displacement /in/set /

Destruction of oil infrastructure

Protests in Khartoum

Southern pipeline projects via Kenya or Ethiopia Costs probably prohibitive unless major new fields found and developed

Conclusion Borders mostly a colonial creation State sovereignty long pursued by South Sudanese State border territorial expression of sovereignty but creates many problems

Policy recommendations unilateral demarcations should be stopped; all demarcations should be transparent; official joint commissions should be established to facilitate demarcations; map archives should be open; the local population should be consulted; third parties should be allowed to engage in dispute mediation along the border; boundary should be ratified according to the country’s legal procedure; regional governors along the border should be granted a relative free hand to deal with the Social concerns of local populations in the disputed areas; ethnic minorities in border area should be protected. visa requirements should be simplified to facilitate border crossing procedures; consulates should be opened in border cities; border guards should be trained in border and visa procedures, to stop or discourage corruption among them and customs authorities, and to prevent harassment of travelers. International Crisis Group (2002) Recommendations on border disputes and conflict potential