Conversion of glucose to ATP Cellular Respiration Conversion of glucose to ATP

Outline of what you will be learning… 1. Overview 2. Purpose: To Get ATP! 3. Electron Carrier Molecules 4. Mitochondria 5. The Basics of Cell Respiration 6. Glycolysis 7.Pyruvate chemical “grooming” 8. Kreb’s Cycle 9. Electron Transport Chain (Oxidative Phosphorylation) 10. Cell Respiration Summary 11. Fermentation- Anaerobic Respiration

1. Overview Who does it? What is it? Where does it occur? All living things: both autotrophs and heterotrophs What is it? Carbohydrates and O2 are used to make ATP (energy). CO2 and H20 are waste products. The opposite of photosynthesis. Involves three steps: glycolysis, kreb’s cycle, and electron transport chain. Where does it occur? The cytoplasm and the mitochondria of the cell

1. Overview Equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H20 + ATP Glucose+ oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy

2. Purpose: To Get ATP! ATP: A modified nucleotide molecule that powers all cellular work directly. Its structure: adenine, ribose and three phosphates are combined by dehydration synthesis

2. Purpose: To Get ATP! Phosphorylation ATP molecules release phosphate groups to various other molecules. These molecules take in the phosphate by phosphorylation and get excess energy to perform various processes. When ATP releases a phosphate + energy it produces ADP (adenosine diphosphate) ADP can turn back to ATP by taking in a phosphate and energy by phosphorylation Similar to recharging a battery

2. Purpose: To Get ATP!

3. Electron Carrier Molecules There are two different molecules that are used to carry electrons and hydrogen ions to the last step cellular respiration. NAD+ carries 2 electrons and a hydrogen ion at a time – NADH FAD+ carries 2 electrons and two hydrogen ions at a time – FADH2

4. Mitochondria

5. The Basics of Cell Respiration Redox reaction Cellular respiration is a collection of enzyme catalyzed reactions of: oxidation (the loss of electrons from an element) reduction (the gaining of an electron by an element)

5. The Basics of Cell Respiration Cellular respiration releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen. 6 O2 + C6H12O6 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP (energy) Cellular respiration takes place in small steps to minimize the loss of energy in the form of heat or light. Processes that require oxygen to take place are called aerobic. Processes that do not require oxygen to take place are anaerobic.

5. The Basics of Cell Respiration Aerobic Cellular respiration consists of three major steps (when oxygen is present): Glycolysis – occurs in the cytoplasm The Krebs cycle – occurs in the mitochondrion Electron transport chain – occurs in the mitochondrion

5. The Basics of Cell Respiration

6. Glycolysis Means “splitting sugar” Begins with a single molecule of glucose (6-C) and concludes with two molecules of another organic compound, called pyruvate (3-C). A net gain of 2 NADH molecules and 2 ATP molecules ATP can be used by cell immediately; NADH must pass down the ETC in mitochondria Substrate-level phophorylation occurs An enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate molecule directly to ADP, forming ATP

6. Glycolysis 9 Steps (Figure 6.7C) Steps 1-3: A sequence of three chemical reactions converts glucose to a molecule of fructose using 2 ATP. Step 4: Fructose splits into two G3P molecules Step 5: G3P gets oxidized and NAD+ is reduced to NADH Steps 6-9: specific enzymes make four molecules of ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation. Water gets produced as a by-product

6. Glycolysis 2 ATP produced account only for 5% of the energy that a cell can harvest from a glucose molecule. 2 NADH account for another 16%, but there stored energy is not available for use in the absence of O2.

6. Glycolysis

7. Pyruvate chemical “grooming” As pyruvate forms at the end of glycolysis, it is transported from the cytoplasm into the mitochondria Pyruvate does not enter the Kreb’s Cycle as itself. It undergoes major chemical “grooming”

7.Pyruvate chemical “grooming” A large, multienzyme complex catalyzes three reactions: A carbon atom is removed from pyruvate and released in CO2 The two-carbon compound remaining is oxidized while a molecule of NAD+ is reduced to NADH A compound called coenzyme A, derived from a B vitamin, joins with the two-carbon group to form a molecule called acetyl coenzyme A: Abbreviated acetyl CoA, is a high-energy fuel molecule for the Kreb’s Cycle For each molecule of glucose that enters glycolysis, two molecules of acetyl CoA are produced and enter the Kreb’s cycle.

7. Pyruvate chemical “grooming”

8. Kreb’s Cycle Overview: Called Krebs in honor of Hans Krebs, German-British researcher who worked out much of this cyclic phase of cellular respiration in the 1930s. Only the two-carbon acetyl part of the acetyl CoA molecule actually participates in the citric acid cycle. Coenzyme A helps the acetyl group enter the cycle and then splits off and is recycled.

8. Kreb’s Cycle Overview (continued): Occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria Compared with glycolysis, Kreb’s Cycle pays big energy dividends to the cell This makes 1 ATP, 3 NADH and 1 FADH2, per acetyl coA (double that for each glucose molecule) Releases CO2 as waste is aerobic (requires oxygen)

8. Kreb’s Cycle

8. Kreb’s Cycle Details of the citric acid cycle: Figure 6.9B: Step 1 Acetyl coA is stripped via enzymes: coA is recycle and the remaining acetyl (2-C) is combined with oxaloacetate already present in the mitochondria forming citrate (6-C) Step 2 and 3 Redox reactions take place stripping hydrogen atoms from organic intermediates producing NADH molecules and dispose of 2-C that came from oxaloacetate, which are released as CO2. Substrate-level phos. of ADP occurs to form ATP. A 4-C molecule called succinate forms. Step 4 and 5 Oxaloacetate gets regenerated from maltate, and FAD and NAD+ are reduced to FADH2 and NADH, respectively. Oxaloacetate is ready for another turn of the cycle by accepting another acetyl group

9. Electron Traansport Chain Involves oxidative phosphorylation A clear illustration of structure fitting function: the spatial arrangement of electron carriers built into a membrane makes it possible for the mitochondrion to use the chemical energy released by redox reactions to create an H+ gradient and then use the energy stored in the gradient to drive ATP synthesis Chemiosmosis also occurs The potential energy of the concentration gradient is used to make ATP.

9. Electron Transport Chain Built into the inner membrane of the mitochondrion, or in the cristae folds, providing space for thousands of copies of the electron transport chain and many ATP synthase complexes With all these ATP-making “machines,” a mitochondrion can produce many ATP molecules simultaneously

9. Electron Transport Chain

9. Electron Transport Chain Figure 6.10: Path of electron flow from the shuttle molecules NADH and FADH2 to O2, the final electron acceptor. Each oxygen atom (1/2 O2) accepts two electrons from the chain and picks up two hydrogen ions from the surrounding solution to form H2O, one of the final products of cellular respiration. Most of the carrier molecules reside in the three main protein complexes, while two mobile carriers transport electrons between the complexes.

9. Electron Transport Chain Figure 6.10 (continued): All of the carriers bind and release electrons in redox reactions, passing electrons down the “energy staircase.” Protein complexes shown in the diagram use the energy released from the electron transfers to actively transport H+ across the membrane, from where they are less concentrated to where they are more concentrated. Hydrogen ions are transported from the matrix of the mitochondrion (its innermost compartment) into the mitochondrion’s intermembrane space.

9. Electron Transport Chain Figure 6.10 (continued): The resulting H+ gradient stores potential energy, similar to a dam storing energy by holding back elevated water. Dams can be harnessed to generate electricity when the water is allowed to rush downhill, turning giant wheels called turbines. Similarly, ATP synthases built into the inner mitochondrial membrane act like minature turbines. H+ can only cross through ATP synthases bc they are not permeable to the membrane. Hydrogen ions rush back “downhill” through an ATP synthase, spinning a component of the complex, just as water turns the turbine in a dam. Rotation activates catalytic sites in the synthase that attach phosphate groups to ADP molecules to generate ATP.

9. Electron Transport Chain Why is this process called oxidative phosphorylation? The energy derived from the oxidation-reduction reactions of the electron transport chain that transfer electrons from organic molecules to oxygen is used to phosphorylate ADP. By chemosmosis, the exergonic reactions of electron transport produce an H+ gradient that drives the endergonic synthesis of ATP.

10. Cell Respiration Summary TOTAL= 38 ATP (theoretical) Glycolysis Occurs in cytoplasm 2 ATP 2 NADH 2 H20 get released 2 pyruvate Kreb’s Cycle (including pyruvate grooming) 8 NADH 2 FADH2 6 CO2 get released Electron Transport Chain H20 gets released 10 NADH get converted to 3ATP= 30 ATP 2 FADH2 get converted to 2 ATP= 4 ATP

11. Fermentation- Anaerobic Respiration Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that generates ATP during fermentation. No O2 is required; it generates a net gain of 2 ATP while oxidizing glucose to two molecules of pyruvate and reducing NAD+ to NADH. Significantly less ATP is generated, but it is enough to keep your muscles contracting for a short while when the need for ATP outpaces the delivery of O2 via the blood stream Many microorganisms supply all their energy needs with the 2 ATP yield of glycolysis.

11. Fermentation- Anaerobic Respiration Strict Anaerobes require anaerobic conditions and are poisoned by oxygen Facultative Anaerobes can make ATP either by fermentation or by oxidative phosphorylation, depending on whether O2 is available.

11. Fermentation- Anaerobic Respiration Fermentation provides an anaerobic step that recycles NADH back to NAD+; essential to harvest food energy by glycolysis. Two types of fermentation: Lactic acid Alcohol

11. Fermentation- Anaerobic Respiration Lactic acid fermentation Figure 6.13A NADH is oxidized to NAD+ as pyruvate is reduced to lactate (the ionized form of lactic acid) Lactate builds up in muscle cells during strenuous exercise is carried in the blood to the liver, where it is converted back to pyruvate Dairy industry use this to with bacteria to make cheese and yogurt

11. Fermentation- Anaerobic Respiration Alcohol fermentation Figure 6.13A Used in brewing, winemaking, and baking Used by yeasts and bacteria (facultative anaerobes) Recycle their NADH to NAD+ while converting pyruvate to CO2 and ethanol (ethyl alcohol). CO2 provides bubbles in beer and champagne, and bread dough to rise Ethanol is toxic to organisms that produce it; must release it to their surroundings