Learning AP Psych Myers – Ch. 8

Behaviorism Psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes Most current behavioral psychologists would argue that mental processes should be studied

Learning A relatively permanent change in behavior Acquired from experience or observation Learning Associative Learning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observational Learning Associative Learning – learning that certain events go together

Classical Conditioning PAVLOV WATSON

Classical Conditioning Learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning Conditioned = learned Classical Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus (US) a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response Unconditioned Response (UR) the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR) Conditioned Response (CR) the learned response to a previously neutral, but now conditioned, stimulus (CS)

Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov Studied how dogs associate salivation with food by ringing a tuning fork/bell with the presentation of food. The dog eventually salivated at the sound of the tuning fork/bell. Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Experiment Unconditioned Stimulus (US) a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response FOOD Unconditioned Response (UR) the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US) SALIVATION Conditioned Stimulus (CS) an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR) BELL/SOUND Conditioned Response (CR) the learned response to a previously neutral, but now conditioned, stimulus (CS)

Another Example… An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff to your eye. Unconditioned stimulus Air puff Unconditioned response Eye blink to air puff Conditioned stimulus Tone Conditioned Response Eye blink to tone

Another Example… The Office… Jim classically conditions Dwight Unconditioned stimulus Jim offers mint Unconditioned response Accepts mint Conditioned stimulus Computer sound Conditioned Response Expects mint

Learning Processes Process Description Example Acquisition Initial stage of learning to associate two things when Pavlov paired the neutral stimulus (tuning fork) with the unconditioned stimulus (food) Extinction the diminishing of a CR Pavlov found that when he rang the fork repeatedly without presenting the food, the dogs salivated less and less Spontaneous Recovery the random reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished/extinct CR Pavlov found that if he waited a few hours before ringing the fork again, the dogs would salivate to the ringing after the pause Generalization The tendency for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit a similar response. Pavlov found that dogs would salivate to tones of different pitches that they had not previously associated with food Discrimination The learned ability to distinguish between stimilar stimuli Pavlov’s dogs also learned to respond to certain tones and not to others

John B. Watson Conditioned “Little Albert” to fear white rats, later all white, fluffy animals Previously not afraid of white rats, Watson presented a loud banging sound when Albert saw a white rat  conditioned fear of rats. US Loud noise UR Crying CS Rat CR

Pavlov’s Legacy and Applications Classical conditioning is a learning technique that virtually all organism’s use to adapt to their environments Pavlov showed that learning processes can be studied objectively (by observing behaviors) Classical conditioning can be helpful in treatment programs for substance abuse, phobias, etc Do 1-10 on the Classical and Operant Conditioning Sheet.

Operant Conditioning SKINNER

Operant Conditioning Learning in which behaviors are strengthened/diminished by consequence Operant behavior – behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Skinner’s Experiment Controlled rats’, and later pigeons’, behaviors with an operant chamber (Skinner box) contained a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking Based on Thorndike’s Law of Effect – rewarded behavior is likely to reoccur, punished behavior is likely to diminish

Shaping Skinner used shaping – an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. Reinforcement – anything that STRENGTHENS behaviors Punishment – anything that DIMINISHES behavior

Adding a desired stimulus Removing an undesired stimulus Positive Negative Reinforcement Adding a desired stimulus Removing an undesired stimulus Punishment Adding an undesired stimulus Removing a desired stimulus Positive… Adding/+ Negative… Removing/- Big Bang Theory – Sheldon trains Penny Big Bang Theory – Sheldon trains Penny II – SPOT THE MISTAKE!

Primary vs Secondary Reinforcers Linked to biology Food Drink Sex Culturally created to be desirable Money Grades in school Tokens Praise

Operant Conditioning Examples Receiving praise for A+ in AP Psych. Positive reinforcement – addition of something good Lunch detention for being late to class. Positive punishment – addition of something bad No homework in class because everyone’s behavior was on point! Negative reinforcement – removal of something bad You get your phone taken away for Snapchatting in class… Negative punishment – removal of something good

Reinforcement Schedules Continuous reinforcement Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs; typically used at the beginning of an operant conditioning process EX: Parent gives child praise or gives a piece of candy every time they use the bathroom during the potty-training process

Reinforcement Schedules Partial or Intermittent Reinforcement reinforcing a response only part of the time Ratio = responses Interval = time Fixed-ratio Reinforces a response only after a set/certain number of responses People paid on piecework (every 30 pieces), Variable-ratio Reinforces a response after varying/unpredictable numbers of responses Slot-machines Fixed-interval Reinforces behavior only after a certain amount of time has passed Weekly paychecks, waiting for pudding/Jell-O to set Variable-interval Reinforces behavior after varying/unpredictable time intervals Pop quizzes, your boss checking your work randomly

Skinner’s Legacy and Applications Skinner adamantly refused to acknowledge that influence of cognitive processes (thoughts and feelings) held any power in shaping behaviors. Operant conditioning is used at school, at work, and at home.

Motivation The type of motivation can affect the effectiveness of reinforcements and punishments Intrinsic motivation – the desire to perform a behavior for its own sake. Extrinsic motivation – the desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment. Children who were normally avid readers (intrinsically motivated) were paid for reading and their reading amount decreased  positive reinforcement backfired Overjustification effect – when external incentives diminish intrinsic motivation

Latent Learning Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. Sarah observes her brother set the table every night for dinner. One night, he is away at a friend’s house and Sarah must set the table. She knows how to do it because she’s observed her brother but had never had to demonstrate the knowledge before. A rat completes a maze several times, without an incentive. The rat learns the maze very slowly. When food is placed at the end of the maze, the rat completes the maze very quickly, demonstrating that latent learning had occurred and a cognitive map of the maze was formed.

Finish the Operant Conditioning Worksheet.

Observational Learning BANDURA

Observational Learning Learning by observing others Learning does not always happen as a byproduct of experience Modeling – the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior Mirror neurons - frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so

Albert Bandura's Experiment Experimental group of preschoolers was exposed to an adult beating a blow-up (Bobo) doll for 10 minutes and then left to see if they would do the same children exposed to aggressive adult models were more likely to be aggressive towards the doll when alone with the toys

Applications of Observational Learning Antisocial models may have antisocial effects (family, TV, movies, friends) Prosocial behavior (positive, constructive, helpful) can have prosocial effects Violent viewing correlates with violent play/actions Violent TV/movies can desensitize children and adults to pain, death, and punishment.