AMERICAN FILM MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE OF THE HOLLYWOOD PRODUCTION COMPANIES

The 6 kinds of management structures: THE CAMERAMAN SYSTEM ( ) THE CAMERAMAN SYSTEM ( ) THE DIRECTOR SYSTEM (1907-9) THE DIRECTOR SYSTEM (1907-9) THE DIRECTOR-UNIT SYSTEM ( ) THE DIRECTOR-UNIT SYSTEM ( ) THE CENTRAL PRODUCER SYSTEM ( ) THE CENTRAL PRODUCER SYSTEM ( ) THE PRODUCER-UNIT SYSTEM ( ) THE PRODUCER-UNIT SYSTEM ( ) THE PACKAGE-UNIT SYSTEM (1940-PRESENT) THE PACKAGE-UNIT SYSTEM (1940-PRESENT)

Changes have been in response to the need for: Standardization of product Standardization of product Differentiation of product Differentiation of product 2 basic ways of structuring labor SOCIAL DIVISION OF LABOR SOCIAL DIVISION OF LABOR DETAILED DIVISION OF LABOR DETAILED DIVISION OF LABOR

DETAILED DIVISION OF LABOR Each worker is assigned 1 task; S/he repeats this task Each worker is assigned 1 task; S/he repeats this task Conception & execution are divided Conception & execution are divided ADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES Workers are easily replaced Workers are more easily & more cheaply trained Wages are graduated

2 FURTHER IMPLICATIONS Higher-level managers rarely countermanded decisions made by middle ‑ level managers Higher-level managers rarely countermanded decisions made by middle ‑ level managers The highly detailed script became essential The highly detailed script became essential MANAGEMENT IN THE EARLY YEARS Shift to narrative films helped speed shift in production from social division of labor to detailed division of labor Shift to narrative films helped speed shift in production from social division of labor to detailed division of labor

THE CAMERAMAN SYSTEM OF PRODUCTION (1896 ‑ 1907) The cameraman: The cameraman: Selected the subject matter Staged it Made all technical decisions Photographed the film Developed the film Edited the film DISADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Production was not rapid or predictable Training 1 person was slow & expensive Not many cameramen were experts in all aspects

THE DIRECTOR SYSTEM OF PRODUCTION (1907 ‑ 9) THE SHIFT TO FICTIONAL NARRATIVE (1907 ‑ 8) THE SHIFT TO FICTIONAL NARRATIVE (1907 ‑ 8) Fictional narratives had a number of advantages: Fictional narratives had a number of advantages: Better suited to mass production Low, predictable cost ‑ per ‑ foot Made in or near a centralized studio Made & released on a regular schedule

Resulted in director system, detailed division of labor Director (conception) managed a set of workers (execution) Based on the model of the legitimate theater THE FUNCTION OF THE DIRECTOR/PRODUCER Furnished idea or rewrote a story provided by company Selected stage settings, gave directions to carpenters, et al. Gave general instructions to the cameraman Edited the film

THE DIRECTOR ‑ UNIT SYSTEM OF PRODUCTION (1909 ‑ 14) The director ‑ unit system was the result of 2 factors The director ‑ unit system was the result of 2 factors INCREASED DEMAND FOR MOVIES THE NEED FOR YEAR ‑ ROUND PRODUCTIONMULTIPLE DIRECTOR STUDIOS DEPARTMENTALIZED DEPARTMENTALIZED Middle ‑ level managers needed to head depts Coordinated activities among the units All requirements were located at the studio

Studios were designed for maximum efficiency Layouts designed for speed & economy Layouts designed for speed & economy Buildings & other structures doubled as exteriors Buildings & other structures doubled as exteriors Location shooting gave way to studio shooting Location shooting gave way to studio shooting Conditions could be more tightly controlled Conditions could be more tightly controlled Shops to make lights, special effects depts, etc. Shops to make lights, special effects depts, etc.

THE SCENARIO SCRIPT SCRIPT OUTLINES replaced by SCENARIO SCRIPTS SCRIPT OUTLINES replaced by SCENARIO SCRIPTS ADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES Costs & production requirements could be more accurately estimated & controlled Time & $ saved if all shots to be taken at 1 location or 1 set were done at the same time Longer, narrative films demanded a more carefully detailed cause & effect structure When length was standardized at 1 reel, all problems needed to be worked out beforehand

CENTRAL PRODUCER SYSTEM ( ) This change, in general, can be traced to: This change, in general, can be traced to: Profit maximization goals, & The shifting & coalescing standards of quality filmmaking Created a new management position: the PRODUCER Created a new management position: the PRODUCER Part of a major shift in the US to “scientific management” Part of a major shift in the US to “scientific management”

In film industry, also due to 2 factors: The advent of the Classical Hollywood Style The advent of the Classical Hollywood Style Techniques for achieving continuity Verisimilitude Narrative dominance & clarity The increase in length of films from about 18 min. to 75 min. The increase in length of films from about 18 min. to 75 min. With the central producer system: Labor became even more specialized & subdivided Labor became even more specialized & subdivided Production became more standardized Production became more standardized

THE INCREASE IN NARRATIVE FILM LENGTH Part of an effort to upgrade perceived quality of movies Part of an effort to upgrade perceived quality of movies By 1907, exhibitors tried to make theaters higher- class By 1907, exhibitors tried to make theaters higher- class 1 way to do this was to raise ticket prices 1 way to do this was to raise ticket prices Had to be justified by offering “better entertainment” THE FEATURE FILM The term “feature film” was borrowed from vaudeville Originally, not a longer film, but a featured film

FEATURE FILMS & ADAPTATION 1 way to make a film special was to adapt a famous work 1 way to make a film special was to adapt a famous work Increased the need for longer film Increased the need for longer film Both of these were used to advertise the film Both of these were used to advertise the film THE COPYRIGHT ISSUE THE COPYRIGHT ISSUE Before 1911, common to use literary sources without paying for rights 1911, Kalem Co. sued for violating copyright laws Companies began to buy the rights Advertised the literary sources heavily Financed plays in return for film rights

By 1916, multiple-reel feature films dominated the market Runs increased to make more $ from each film WHAT DELAYED THE CHANGE? Customers used to arriving at the theater at any time Customers used to arriving at the theater at any time The “lunch-time” business fell off The “lunch-time” business fell off By 1915, the industry also marketed the special feature

THE CENTRAL PRODUCER Studios hired general managers known as producers or central producers Studios hired general managers known as producers or central producers They came from business They came from business Oversaw all of the various departments Oversaw all of the various departments All films were controlled & supervised by the production office All films were controlled & supervised by the production office

The function of the DIRECTOR changed He no longer was the head of a unit He no longer was the head of a unit Now another technical expert Now another technical expert Chosen to direct a film & assigned to a film crew Chosen to direct a film & assigned to a film crew Typically, assistant director was the liaison between the producer & the film crew Typically, assistant director was the liaison between the producer & the film crew

CONTINUITY SCRIPT The continuity script replaced the scenario script The continuity script replaced the scenario script More detailed than the scenario script More detailed than the scenario script It came about for 3 reasons: It came about for 3 reasons: Standardization of the multiple-reel film Development of the central producer system Movement toward the Classical Hollywood style

THE DIVISION OF LABOR THE CONCEPTION OF THE PRODUCTION THE CONCEPTION OF THE PRODUCTION INITIAL DECISIONS Producer (LA) consulted with management (NY) Producer (LA) consulted with management (NY) This group would determine an overall budget This group would determine an overall budget Would determine the $ to be spent on films in specific brackets Would determine the $ to be spent on films in specific brackets Special features Programs B films (after 1930) Shorts: serials, newsreels, etc.

THE PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT The producer headed the production department The producer headed the production department Working with asst director, estimated costs & approved budgets Working with asst director, estimated costs & approved budgets Dept. also kept records of films in production Dept. also kept records of films in production

PRE-SHOOTING WORK THE SCRIPT THE SCRIPT CONTINUITY WRITER or SCRIPT WRITER Kept 2 things in mind: Narrative continuity Narrative continuity The resources of the studio The resources of the studio THE TREATMENT Added step between the story & script Added step between the story & script Summary of the action & characters Summary of the action & characters Needed to be approved by the producer Needed to be approved by the producer

THE DIRECTOR Director became another technical expert Director became another technical expert His decision-making power decreased His decision-making power decreased Directors became more specialized in genres Directors became more specialized in genres RESEARCH DEPARTMENTS SET CONSTRUCTION & ART DIRECTION ART DIRECTORS Designed sets, took over some of the director’s & cinematographer’s decisions Designed sets, took over some of the director’s & cinematographer’s decisions PROPERTY MANAGERS Were in charge of all the props Were in charge of all the props Had staffs to build, buy, or rent props Had staffs to build, buy, or rent props

COSTUME DEPARTMENTS Headed by WARDROBE MISTRESS Headed by WARDROBE MISTRESS CENTRAL CASTING AGENCY Created to supply all but the most important actors Created to supply all but the most important actors MAKE-UP DEPARTMENTS The responsibility of actors until the mid-1920s The responsibility of actors until the mid-1920s Then the studios created MAKE-UP DEPTS Then the studios created MAKE-UP DEPTS Coordinated make-up with different film stocks Coordinated make-up with different film stocks

SHOOTING WORK CINEMATOGRAPHY CINEMATOGRAPHY By the early 1920s, cinematographers had crews Assistants cleaned equipment, moved it, held slate, etc. The 2nd cameraman shot the 2nd negative ASSISTANT DIRECTORS ASSISTANT DIRECTORS Liaised with the production department Handled the arrangements for the shooting

SHOOTING WORK REHEARSALS saved $ & controlled length of films REHEARSALS saved $ & controlled length of films MUSIC DURING SHOOTING created the proper mood MUSIC DURING SHOOTING created the proper mood ORDER OF SHOOTING was out of continuity & determined by the production department ORDER OF SHOOTING was out of continuity & determined by the production department CONTINUITY CLERK CONTINUITY CLERK SCRIPT ASSISTANT or SCRIPT GIRL She was an aide to the assistant director Kept a record of each shot to maintain continuity

POST-SHOOTING WORK NEGATIVE DEVELOPMENT & RUSHES checked within 24 hrs. NEGATIVE DEVELOPMENT & RUSHES checked within 24 hrs. EDITING EDITING The FILM EDITOR made the rough cut He & the director then made the final cut PREVIEWS & REVISIONS were designed to ensure quality products PREVIEWS & REVISIONS were designed to ensure quality products MUSICAL ACCOMPANIMENT was sent with the film MUSICAL ACCOMPANIMENT was sent with the film