Foundation Concepts of Motivation Chapter 6 Foundation Concepts of Motivation PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie Cook Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Learning Objectives After reading and studying this chapter and doing the exercises, you should be able to: Describe several need theories of motivation, including the needs hierarchy, the two-factor theory, and the achievement–power–affiliation triad. Summarize the key propositions of goal theory and reinforcement theory. Explain the expectancy theory of motivation. Explain how equity and social comparison contribute to motivation. Use social learning theory to motivate yourself. Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Learning Objectives After reading and studying this chapter and doing the exercises, you should be able to: Recognize the importance of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators. Explain how personality factors are related to motivation. Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Motivation Motivation defined Theories of motivation The process by which behavior is mobilized and sustained in a work setting in the interest of achieving organizational goals. The expenditure of effort toward achieving a goal because it satisfies an important need. Theories of motivation Content (Needs) theories Process theories Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Need Theories of Motivation Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Lower order needs must be satisfied before higher level needs are activated. Deficiency (lower order) needs Physiological: water, air, food, sleep Safety: security, freedom from environmental threat Growth (higher order) needs Social: group affiliation, physical love Esteem: self-respect and respect from others Self-actualization: self-fulfillment and personal development leading to one’s full potential Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Physiological Social and Love Esteem Self- Actualization Safety Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. EXHIBIT 6-1
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Motivators (intrinsic satisfiers) Motivate and satisfy workers in the job context Are associated with higher order needs Achievement, recognition, advancement, responsibility, work itself, and personal growth possibilities Hygiene factors (extrinsic dissatisfiers) Only prevent dissatisfaction with job content Are associated with lower order needs Pay, job status, job security,working conditions, and quality of leadership Create dissatisfaction if absent in the workplace Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (cont’d) Evaluation (Positives) Contributed to understanding that money is not always the primary motivator. Spurred interest in designing intrinsically satisfying jobs. Evaluation (Negatives) De-emphasis of individual differences. Overlooks the importance of hygiene factors (e.g., benefits) in attracting and retaining workers. Does not account for workers uninterested in growth and advancement. Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Examples of Motivator and Hygiene Factors Motivator Factors Hygiene Factors (Sources of Job Satisfaction (Sources of Job Dissatisfaction; and Motivation) Neutral to Motivation) Challenge of the work itself Physical working conditions Responsibility Company policies Recognition Quality of supervision Achievement Coworker relationships Job advancement and Salary professional growth Status Job security Benefits, including work habits and time management Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. EXHIBIT 6-2
McClelland’s Achievement-Power-Affiliation Triad A theory of motivation based on the premise that people acquire or learn certain needs from their culture. Cultural influences Family Peer groups Popular media (e.g., television shows) When the need becomes strong enough, a person will work to satisfy it. Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Goal-Setting Theory A theory of motivation that focuses on improving and sustaining job performance through the establishment of goals that regulate behavior. Core findings on goal-setting Task performance is better on specific hard goals than when goals are easy and non-specific, “do your best or, where there are no goals. Goal attainment requires capable individuals who accept the goals, and receive task-related feedback. Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Goal-Setting Theory EXHIBIT 6-3 Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. EXHIBIT 6-3
Goal Setting and Task Performance Locke and Latham’s findings: Specific goals lead to higher performance than do generalized goals. Performance generally increases in direct proportion to goal difficulty. For goals to improve performance, workers must accept them Goals are more effective when they are used to evaluate performance. Goals should be linked to feedback and rewards. A learning goal orientation improves performance more than a performance goal orientation. Group goal setting is as important as individual goal setting. Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Reinforcement Theory Behavior is determined by its consequences (rewards and punishments for specific behaviors). Operant conditioning Is learning that takes place as a consequence of behavior. Behavior that has positive consequences is repeated; behavior that has negative consequences is avoided. Managers can create contingencies that employ rewards to encourage desirable behaviors and use punishments to discourage undesirable behaviors. Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Operant Conditioning Strategies Positive reinforcement Providing a pleasurable or valued consequence (reward) for the desired response. Negative reinforcement (avoidance motivation) Encouraging a behavior by removing a uncomfortable consequence when the behavior stops. Extinction Weakening or reducing the frequency of a behavior by removing the reward for a behavior. Punishment Applying an undesirable consequence to a specific behavior. Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Operant Conditioning Examples Positive reinforcement Providing a bonus for meeting a sales quota Negative reinforcement (avoidance motivation) Returning a poorly performing employee to the merit and promotion list after a period of improvement. Extinction Refusing to listen to an employee’s off-color jokes. Punishment Suspending an employee for improper internet usage. Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Expectancy Theory Motivation results from deliberate choices to engage in activities in order to achieve worthwhile outcomes. People will be motivated if they believe effort will lead to good performance and that good performance leads, in turn, to preferred outcomes. Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Key Components of Expectancy Theory Effort-to-Performance (EP) Expectancy A subjective estimate of the probability that a increased effort will lead to the desired performance. Self-efficacy affects motivation to put forth effort. Instrumentality (PO) An individual’s estimate of the probability that a increased performance will lead to desired outcomes. Valence The value a person places on a particular outcome. Desirable outcomes have positive valences; less desirable outcomes have negative valences. Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
A Basic Version of Expectancy Theory Motivational Force Expectancy (how well the person believes he or she can perform the task) Instrumentality that performance will lead to certain outcomes) Valence (the value that the person attaches to the outcome) = X Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved. EXHIBIT 6-4
Key Component Examples Effort-to-Performance (EP) Expectancy “Am I capable of the effort required to reach that level of performance?” Instrumentality (PO) “Is a particular level of performance truly tied to a specific reward?” Valence “How much do I want any of the rewards that the organization is offering?” Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
The Calculation of Motivation Motivational force is high when its components (expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences) are high. Example (from textbook): Valence = 100 (scale: -100 to +100) EP = x .85 (scale: 0 to 1.00) PO = x .90 (scale: 0 to 1.00) Motivation = 76.50 (scale: -100 to +100) Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Enhancing Motivation Managers can: Provide training to raise skill levels that increase the performance capabilities of employees (EP). Provide assurance to employees that good performance is will lead to a reward system (PO) . Provide rewards that are meaningful and valued by the employees; that rewards have positive valences for the employees. Being aware that rewards not run counter to cross-cultural factors where singling out individual performers for rewards is culturally insensitive. Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Equity Theory and Social Comparison Employee satisfaction and motivation depend on how fairly employees believe they are treated in comparison to their peers. Employees compare their outcomes (rewards) from the organization and the level of their efforts (inputs) to those of others (reference sources). Employees feel equity when they believe that their outcome/input ratio is equal to that of others. Outcomes of Individual Inputs of Individual Outcomes of Others Inputs of Others compared to Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Employee Responses to Inequity Alter the outcome (ask for more money). Alter the inputs (decrease efforts). Distort the perception (engage in self-justification and seek to discredit others). Change the reference source (find another person with a similar outcome/input ratio). Leave the situation (quit to pursue a more equitable position). Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Social Learning Theory The process of observing the behavior of others, recognizing its consequences, and altering behavior as a result. Social learning requires: High expectancies that observed behavior can learned and it will result in valued rewards. Rewards that can be self-administered (drawing intrinsic satisfaction from the behavior itself) The behavior to be learned is tangible and observable. Possession of the physical and mental ability to imitate the behavior. Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Intrinsic Motivation Intrinsic motivation Is the belief that an activity (work) can satisfy needs for competence and self-determination. Is affected (increased or reduced) by personal values and perceptions. the characteristics of the task. the reason for doing the task. rewards that become externalized. Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Extrinsic Motivation Extrinsic rewards: Limited value can lower employee performance. May cause employees to focus narrowly only a task that is rewarded. May cause a rush through a job to get a reward. May cause a task to be regarded as drudgery that must be suffered through to receive a reward. May cause employees to feel less free and less self-determining. Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
The Influence of Personality on Motivation Personality traits that predispose persons to motivation: Conscientiousness A conscientious person will strive to get the job done. Achievement need A need that usually functions like a personality trait—the achievement-driven person welcomes accomplishing tasks. Employees with low conscientiousness scores, and weak achievement needs are difficult to motivate. Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Measuring Motivation Communion striving Status striving Actions directed toward being accepted in personal relationships and getting along with coworkers. Status striving Actions directed toward obtaining power and dominance within a status hierarchy, such as a business firm. Accomplishment striving Reflects an individual’s intention to accomplish tasks, as included in most definitions of work motivation. Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.