Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Methods in Cultural Anthropology (Miller Chapter 2)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Goals of Research in Cultural Anthropology  To study, analyze, and describe culture(s) in accordance with ethical principles

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 How Do Cultural Anthropologists Do Research?  Approaches have changed over time  “Armchair anthropology” – 1870s  Sitting and reading about other cultures and formulating theories about them  Edward Tylor

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 How Do Cultural Anthropologists Do Research?  “Verandah anthropology” – early 1900s  Living near, but not with the people to be studied  Early Bronislaw Malinowski

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 How Do Cultural Anthropologists Do Research?  “The Field” – 1920s - today  “The Field” – any place where people and cultures are (p. 28)  Later Bronislaw Malinowski

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 The Field and Participant Observation  While in the field, the cornerstone method anthropologists use is participant observation.  Participant observation is a research method for learning about culture that involves living in (and/or immersing oneself in) a culture for an extended period while gathering data (p. 28)  “Father” of participant observation is Bronislaw Malinowski

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Key Elements of Participant Observation  Living with the people  Participating in their everyday life  May be conducted in one or more locations  If fieldwork is conducted in more than one location it is termed “multisited research” (p. 29)  Learning and speaking the local language  Often occurs over an extended period of time

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Steps Involved in Cultural Anthropology Fieldwork  Before going into the field…  Choose a place to do research  Choose a research topic  Prepare for the fieldwork  While in the field…  Gain rapport  Collect data  When come back from the field…  Data analysis  Present the data / write up results

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Where to do research? Cultural anthropologists today go to “the field” ► “The field” is anywhere people are

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 “The field” has changed since the early days of cultural anthropology in terms of where it is

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 From the faraway, exotic and small-scale… For example, Samoa

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 To urban and globalizing sites such as Tangier, Morocco

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 To the field at home: for example, Tangier, Virginia

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Even to Main Street, USA…

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 …and Corporate USA

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 What to Study? Topics have changed since the early days of cultural anthropology

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 From “holistic” studies of small groups…  such as indigenous peoples of the Andaman Islands, India …to focused topical studies such as gender, health, or conflict in larger societies

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Gender: women’s lives in a South Indian urban neighborhood

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Or how globalization affects informal markets in the Old City of Istanbul, Turkey

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Or poverty and health in Johannesburg, South Africa

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Or tourism’s environmental and social effects in the Andaman Islands

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 What should you think about when choosing a research project?

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 What do you do before you go into the field? How do you prepare?

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Beginning Fieldwork  Fieldwork is often a difficult process, especially in the beginning  Dealing with physical and psychological risks, and sometimes even violence and warfare

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Beginning Fieldwork

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Beginning Fieldwork  Dealing with culture shock  Culture shock is persistent feelings of uneasiness, loneliness, and anxiety that often occur when a person has shifted from one culture to a different one (p. 35)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Culture Shock discussion  Think of an occasion in which you experienced culture shock, even if as the result of a brief cross-cultural encounter.  How did you feel?  How did you cope?  What did you learn from the experience?

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Beginning Fieldwork  Primary goal in the early stages of fieldwork is to gain rapport  Rapport is a trusting relationship between the researcher and the study population (p. 33)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Fieldwork Approaches  The goal of fieldwork is to collect data, or information, about the research topic.  Research approaches can be deductive or inductive.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Deductive Research  Deductive research starts from a question or hypothesis and then involves collecting data related to that question  Data collected is more likely to be…  quantitative (numerical)  etic (fits into categories meaningful to the cultural outsider/anthropologist)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Inductive Research  Inductive research involves gathering data without a hypothesis  Data collected is more likely to be…  qualitative (non-numerical)  emic (fits into categories meaningful to the cultural insider/local population)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Two Research Approaches: Deductive and Inductive

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Two Research Approaches: Deductive and Inductive

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Fieldwork Techniques  Participant observation  Talking with people  Interview  Questionnaire/Survey  Life histories  Time allocation studies  Analyzing textual material  Maps and charts  Genealogy  Triangulation

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Participant Observation

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Talking with people

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Talking with people

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Life Histories  A life history is a qualitative, in-depth description of an individual’s life as narrated to the researcher (p. 38)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Time Allocation Studies  A time allocation study is a quantitative method that collects data on how people spend their time each day on particular activities (p. 38) Guatemala City caretakers Benin

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Analyzing Textual Material  May include written or oral stories, myths, songs, plays, sayings, speeches, jokes, and transcripts of people’s everyday conversations  Also includes written archival and historical material

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Maps and Charts

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Triangulation  Triangulation is a technique that involves seeking information on a particular topic from more than one angle or perspective (p. 39)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Recording Culture  Refers to how an anthropologist keeps track of all the information collected in the field and how it is recorded for future analysis

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Recording Culture  Anthropologists take many field notes!  Taking notes is still the trademark method of recording data for a cultural anthropologist  Tape recorders, photography, and videos are also helpful in capturing data

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Recording Culture Field notesTape recording, photography, and videos Interviews Questionnaires Watching and askingLife history Texts/historical sources Team projects

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Coming Back From the Field  Data Analysis  Anthropologists come back from the field with vast amounts of data!  Must analyze the data to put it into a meaningful form  Systematically studying and processing data  Qualitative and Quantitative Data Analysis

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Coming Back from the Field  Qualitative data analysis  Search for themes or patterns in the data  Can be done by hand or with the assistance of qualitative analysis software programs

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Coming Back from the Field  Qualitative data analysis

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Coming Back from the Field  Quantitative data analysis  Often consists of a statistical analysis of the data  Mean, median, mode, correlations  Can be done by hand (if a relatively small sample) or with the help of statistical software programs

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Coming Back from the Field  Quantitative data analysis

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Quantitative Data on the Food Stamp Program in Jamaica

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Coming Back from the Field  Write an ethnography  Often focuses on a particular cultural aspect or issue, but considers the culture as a whole for the sake of context  Present research at meetings

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Ethics in Anthropology Prompted by Project Camelot & The Vietnam War In 1971, the AAA adopted a code of ethics The anthropologist’s first responsibility is to ensure the safety of the people participating in the research Does not condone “undercover” research

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Ethics in Anthropology  Informed consent – an aspect of research ethics requiring that the researcher inform the research participants of the intent, scope, and possible effects of the study and seek their agreement to be in the study (p. 32)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Collaborative Research  Collaborative research – an approach to learning about culture that involves the anthropologist working with members of the study population as partners and teammates rather than researcher and “subject” (p. 43)  Research with the people, by the people, for the people  Team approach is better for everyone

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Collaborative Research  Members of the study population work as partners with the anthropologist in…  Data collection  Data analysis  Presentation of findings  Sharing credit for results

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 History of Fieldwork “Armchair” approach 1870s “Verandah” approach Early 1900s “The Field” approach 1920s “The Field” + participant observation and collaborative research Today

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 The Gods Must Be Crazy  sfUpBck sfUpBck

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Question #1  What is the best way to conduct anthropological research in literate societies? A)survey research B)ethnography C)through a combination of survey and ethnographic techniques D)observation from a distance E)There is no good way to conduct anthropological fieldwork in complex societies

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Question #2  Which of the following is unique to anthropology? A)holistic ethnography B)ethics C)random sampling D)interviews E)questionnaires

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Question #3  Unlike questionnaires, in-depth interviews __________. A) rely on very short responses. B) are better suited to urban, complex societies where most people are literate. C) are usually administered to a random sample of a larger population. D)allow informants to talk about what they see as important, rather than have to modify their responses to fit into predetermined categories. E)are traditionally associated with survey research.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Question #4  Unlike ethnography, survey research _________. A)studies communities in their entirety. B)has been traditionally conducted in nonindustrial, small-scale societies. C)is conducted with little or no personal contact between study subjects and researchers. D)makes little use of statistics. E)is based on establishing close personal ties with the study community.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Question #5  Which of the following is not an example of participant-observation? A)dancing in a festival B)singing during a ritual C)taking part in a hunt D)competing in the games popular in the community E)interviewing key informants

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Question #6  The etic perspective is _________. A)that of the ethnographer / anthropologist / interviewer. B)that of the local members of the community being studied. C)the one held by refugees regarding the authorities that forced them to leave their home country. D)how locals perceive the world in which they live. E)that of the person being interviewed.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Question #7  Rapport is one of the ways anthropologists present their findings from their fieldwork. A)True B)False

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Question #8  Research starts from a question or hypothesis and then involves collecting data related to that question is inductive research. A)True B)False

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Question #9  The “armchair” approach to anthropology is commonly practiced today. A)True B)False

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Question #10  Qualitative data is non-numerical data. A)True B)False