NATURALISTIC, QUALITATIVE AND ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH Cathrine Beaunae, Ph.D. 2013 International Conference on English Education & Studies. Wenzao Ursuline College of Languages 22- 6- 2013 Adapted from Cohen, L. Manion, L & Morrison, K (2011). Research Methods in Education. (7th Ed). NY: Routledge

WHY QUALITATIVE RESEARCH? Valuable in education because: The world of education is a messy place Education is infused with ambiguities and contradictions The real answers are in people and situations Multilayered and complex

NATURALISTIC METHODS ASK (Lofland, 1971) What are the characteristics of a social phenomenon? What are the causes of the social phenomenon? What are the consequences of the social phenomenon?

TYPES OF NATURALISTIC INQUIRY Case study Comparative studies Longitudinal studies Ethnography/participant observer Grounded theory

MAIN METHODS OF NATURALISTIC INQUIRY Participant observation Interviews and conversations Documents and field notes Notes and memos

THE QUALITATIVE PARADIGM Humans actively construct their own meanings of situations Meaning arises out of social situations and is handled through interpretive processes Behavior and data are socially situated, context-related, context-dependent and context-rich Realities are multiple, constructed, and holistic Knower and known are interactive, inseparable

THE QUALITATIVE PARADIGM Research must include ‘thick descriptions’ The attribution of meaning is continuous and evolving over time People are deliberate, intentional and creative in their actions Social research needs to examine situations through the eyes of the participants Researchers are the instruments of the research

THE QUALITATIVE PARADIGM Researchers generate theories rather than test hypotheses Researchers do not know in advance what they will see Human phenomena seem to require even more conditional stipulations than do other kinds Meanings and understandings replace proof Situations are unique – not necessarily generalizable The processes of research and behavior are as important as the outcomes

THE QUALITATIVE PARADIGM People, situations, events and objects have meaning conferred upon them rather than possessing intrinsic meaning Social research should be conducted in natural, uncontrived, real world settings Social reality, experiences and social phenomena are capable of multiple, sometimes contradictory interpretations All factors have to be taken into account Data are analyzed inductively

PROCESSES OF QUALITATIVE ENQUIRY Studies take place in natural settings/context influences meaning Humans are the research instrument Utilization of tacit knowledge is inescapable Purposive sampling can explore the full scope of issues Data analysis is inductive rather than deductive Tacit - implied

PROCESSES OF QUALITATIVE ENQUIRY Theory emerges (is grounded) Research designs emerge over time Research outcomes are negotiated Idiographic interpretation replaces nomothetic interpretation Applications are tentative and pragmatic Trustworthiness replaces conventional views of reliability and validity.

TEN ELEMENTS OF SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM 1. People construct their own actions – they are deliberate intentional and creative 2. People attribute to, and construct meanings of, their situations and behavior; people impose meanings on situations 3. Significance of subjective meanings and the symbols and symbol systems (e.g. language and communication) by which they are produced and represented people behave based on what they believe and not just on what is objectively true. Thus, society is thought to be socially constructed through human interpretation. People interpret one another’s behavior and it is these interpretations that form the social bond. These interpretations are called the “definition of the situation.” For example, why would young people smoke cigarettes even when all objective medical evidence points to the dangers of doing so? The answer is in the definition of the situation that people create. Studies find that teenagers are well informed about the risks of tobacco, but they also think that smoking is cool, that they themselves will be safe from harm, and that smoking projects a positive image to their peers. So, the symbolic meaning of smoking overrides the facts

TEN ELEMENTS OF SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM 4. Understanding individuals’ definitions in their terms, i.e. in any situation there are many definitions of the situation – multiple realities; the self is a social product, constructed through interaction with ‘significant others’ which occurs in relation to multiple ‘reference groups’ 5. Significance of negotiation – the process by which meanings are constructed 6. Significance of the natural, social context/environment/ setting in understanding meaning and meaning construction 7. Situations and people are unique and individual (idiographic)

TEN ELEMENTS OF SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM 8. The nature of a ‘career’ – the moving perspective in which people regard their own and others’ lives, based on the meanings which are being formed; ‘career’ includes notions of commitment and identity 9. Research must include ‘thick description’ – detailed accounts of the situation and participants’ meanings and behavior 10. Analysis is ‘emic’ rather than ‘etic’ – generating meaning through participants’ subjective constructed accounts

ETHNOGRAPHIES CONCERN . . . The production of descriptive cultural knowledge of a group The description of activities in relation to a particular cultural context from the point of view of the members of that group Features that constitute membership in a group or culture The description and analysis of patterns of social interaction The provision as far as possible of ‘insider accounts’ The development of theory.

CRITICAL ETHNOGRAPHY Conventional ethnography concerned with what is, critical ethnography concerned with what could be Theoretical basis in critical theory and ideology critique. Concerned to expose oppression and inequality in society with a view of emancipating groups towards collective empowerment Research is an inherently political enterprise: ethnography with a political intent It has an explicit agenda and ‘ethical responsibility’ to promote freedom, social justice, equity and well-being.

CRITICAL ETHNOGRAPHY Power, control and social exploitation are problematic/need to be changed, rather than investigated or discovered Research and thinking are mediated by power relations These power relations are socially and historically located Facts and values are inseparable Relationships between objects and concepts are fluid and mediated by the social relations of production

CRITICAL ETHNOGRAPHY Language is central to perception Certain groups in society exert more power than others Inequality and oppression are inherent in capitalist relations of production and consumption Ideological domination is strongest when oppressed groups see their situation as inevitable, natural or necessary Forms of oppression mediate each other and must be considered together (e.g. race, gender, class).

CRITICAL THEORETICAL RESEARCH Looking at how life in a democratic society should be. What does that mean – what life should be like in a democratic society? How do we know that life isn’t as it should be in a democratic society?

PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH CRITICAL THEORETICAL A deliberately political reading of education and research IDEOLOGY CRITIQUE FEMINIST PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH POLITICAL RESEARCH CRITICAL ETHNOGRAPHY PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH Ideology critique is based on the belief that those in power positions are there at the expense of those they have disempowered; participatory research & paticipatory action research are based on engaging in and empowering individuals in a community that may be marginalized or subordinate; feminst theory is based on the idea of while male is norm, everything else is other and consequently less than or more of; post-colonial theory examines societies and the legacy of colonialism – for example: neocolonialism; queer theory is examining anything that is in opposition to the norm; so it originated within the gay community but has now been used in other contexts. Political research under the category of critical research is similar to participatory and feminist research – but there is another way of looking at political research – how research has become politicized. POST-COLONIAL THEORY QUEER THEORY

CRITICAL APPROACHES (MACRO AND MICRO) EQUALITY POWER INTERESTS FREEDOM NORMATIVE SOCIAL JUSTICE EMANCIPATION

IDEOLOGY CRITIQUE DESCRIBE EXISTING SITUATION UNDERSTAND REASONS FOR EXISTING SITUATION INTERROGATE LEGITIMACY OF REASONS FOR/CAUSES OF EXISTING SITUATION SET AN AGENDA TO IMPROVE THE EXISTING SITUATION

PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH (Bottom-up research) Groups (e.g. community groups) themselves establish/implement interventions to bring about change, development and improvement to their lives, acting collectively rather than individually. Research with people and communities rather than doing research to or for people and communities. Ordinary people are entirely capable of reflective and critical analysis of their situation. Research with a practical intent, for transforming lives and communities, making the practical more political and the political more practical.

FEMINIST RESEARCH Commitment to revealing core processes and recurring features of women’s oppression Insistence on the inseparability of theory and practice Insistence on the connections between the private and the public, between the domestic and the political Concern with the social/cultural construction and reproduction of gender and sexual difference Need to change the status quo, not just to understand or interpret it

FEMINIST RESEARCH Rejection of positivism and objectivity as male mythology Increased use of qualitative, introspective biographical research techniques Recognition of the gendered nature of social research and the development of anti-sexist research strategies The research process as consciousness and awareness raising and as fundamentally participatory Rejection of hierarchies in social research;

FEMINIST RESEARCH Rejection of positivism and objectivity as male mythology Increased use of qualitative, introspective biographical research techniques Recognition of the gendered nature of social research and the development of anti-sexist research strategies The research process as consciousness and awareness raising and as fundamentally participatory Rejection of hierarchies in social research;

POST-COLONIAL THEORY After-effects, or continuation, of ideologies and discourses of imperialism, domination and repression, value systems (e.g. the domination of western values and the delegitimization of non-Western values) After-effects of colonialism on the daily lived experiences of participants Regard in which peoples in post-colonial societies are held Valorization of multiple voices and heterogeneity in post-colonial societies Resistance to marginalization of groups within post- colonial societies Construction of identities in a post-colonial world.

QUEER THEORY Queer theory explores the social construction and privileging or denial of identities, sexual behavior, deviant behavior and the categorizations and ideologies involved in such constructions. Halperin (1997: 62): Queer theory ‘acquires its meaning from its oppositional relation to the norm. Queer is by definition whatever is at odds with the normal, the legitimate, the dominant’. Queer theory explores, problematizes,interrogates gender, sexuality and also their mediation by other characteristics or forms of oppression, e.g. social class, ethnicity, color, disability.

CRITICAL RACE THEORY Racism is ordinary and on-going – difficult to cure and address White-over-color ascendency – racism advances the interests of white elites (materially) and working class (psychically) – no incentives to change a system of racism Race is socially constructed – not based on biology Differential racialization – what groups of people are currently being racialized?

PLANNING A QUALITATIVE STUDY Locate a field of study. Decide research questions Address ethical issues. Decide from whom to obtain data (sampling) Finding a role – access & permission Find informants: reliability Importance in giving accounts Knowledge/knowledgeability Status Contacts – gatekeepers Representativeness Relationships to others.

PLANNING A QUALITATIVE STUDY Develop and maintain relationships in the field: trust; confidence; rapport; discretion; sensitivity; empathy Collect data in situ and in several contexts (field notes and triangulation) Collect data outside the context Analyze data Leave the field/close relationships Write the final report.

REFLEXIVITY Researchers are part of the social world that they are researching This social world is an already interpreted world by the actors Researchers bring their own biographies to the research situation Researchers should acknowledge and disclose themselves in the research, seeking to understand their part in, or influence on, the research

OBSERVER ROLES OUTSIDER INSIDER  Detached Observer as participant Participant as observer Complete participant

SOME DIFFICULTIES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Definition of the situation Reactivity Halo effect Implicit conservatism Focusing on the familiar Open-endedness/diversity Neglect of wider social contexts and constraints Generalizability Writing up multiple realities Ownership of the data