GEOG 101 Fall 2013 Jeff Lewis Agriculture

Learning Outcomes: At the end of this lecture, you should be able to: State the importance of soils for agriculture and in supporting plant growth Outline the historical development of agriculture and the transition to industrialized agriculture Identify the causes of soil erosion and soil degradation, and explain the basic principles of soil conservation Explain the challenge of feeding a growing human population Evaluate sustainable agriculture Describe the science behind genetically modified food
and evaluate controversies over genetically modified food

Why Should You Care About Food Resources Three major reasons Food required for healthy & productive life 1 billion people do not get enough food Food production large environmental impact - 38% of world’s ice free land in agriculture - 70% of freshwater used for agriculture - 60% of water pollution - 25% of human greenhouse gases

Most of Canada's wasted food dumped from homes $27B worth of food wasted across the country every year, research group says http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2012/09/28/food-waste-report.html

7 ways to reduce household food waste 1. Take stock before you shop 2. Plan your meals 3. Be smart about expiration dates 4. Don't assume you need to buy in bulk 5. Learn the art of pre-portioning 6. Use more of your fruits and veggies 7. Think twice before tossing overripe fruits and veggies http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2012/10/01/f-food-waste-reduction-tips.html http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2012/10/01/f-food-waste-reduction-tips.html

Soil a complex plant-supporting system consisting of: disintegrated rock organic matter water gases nutrients microorganisms Soil cannot be considered a renewable resource as it takes 500 to 1000 years to produce 2.5 cm of topsoil

http://www.ediblegeography.com/sixty-six-percent-natural/

Percent of land use for growing crops http://www.ediblegeography.com/sixty-six-percent-natural/ http://www.radicalcartography.net/index.html?worldcrops

Food Choices There are fewer than two dozen species of major food sources. They all share three characteristics: 1. High yield High production per unit area of land. Essential to subsistence farmers dependant on small parcels of land 2. High food value Staple foods have high total calories and essential nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, fats and vitamins Most subsistence farmers plant a grain or tuber crop for caloric intake and then vegetables and fruit for additional nutrients 3. Storage ability Most foods are harvested at a certain time of year and must last until the next harvest

Food Choices Top five global crops: Potato Cassava (Manioc) Wheat Rice Corn (Maize)

Food Choices Efficiency 90% of human food comes from plants Developing World are more efficient than developed world because they rely on the lowest trophic level in the energy pyramid

Food Choices Efficiency 90% of human food comes from plants Developed World most agriculture aimed at livestock and the crops that feed them vast amounts of food energy is used in producing animal protein

Consumption of animal products is growing FIGURE 8.15

Our food choices are also energy choices 90% of energy is lost every time energy moves from one trophic level to the next The lower on the food chain from which we take our food sources, the more people the Earth can support FIGURE 8.17

Environmental ramifications of eating meat Land and water are needed to raise food for livestock Producing eggs and chicken meat requires the least space and water; beef requires the most FIGURE 8.18 When we choose what to eat, we also choose how we use resources

The Evolution of Agriculture Agriculture led to: stable food source urban centres specialization -stable food source led to development of town and specialization -

Systems of Agricultural Production Subsistence Agriculture: basic needs are met with a small surplus for trade or store most widespread agricultural system in the world Three Subsistence Agricultural Methods: Intensive Subsistence Farming: supports dense populations as it produces relatively high yields per unit of land Shifting cultivation: supports small populations, requires large areas Nomadic herding: supports very small populations, based on seasonal migration

Systems of Agricultural Production Industrial Revolution Mechanization enabled farmers to specialize and mass produce led to commercial agricultural systems that dominated regions

Systems of Agricultural Production Wheat Dairy General Range Cotton

Systems of Agricultural Production Industrial Agriculture: emphasize specialized production of crops and livestock to sell can produce enough food to feed many other people Production efficiency is achieved in two ways: improved inputs such as seeds, irrigation, fertilizers and pesticides promote higher yield Specialized machinery speeds up production and requires fewer people, uses fossil fuels

Fertilizers boost yields but can be overapplied Fertilizer = substances that contain essential nutrients Inorganic fertilizers = mined or synthetically manufactured mineral supplements Organic fertilizers = the remains or wastes of organisms manure, crop residues, fresh vegetation Compost = produced when decomposers break down organic matter

Fertilizers boost yields but can be overapplied

Soil degradation: We lose 5-7 million hectares of productive cropland annually FIGURE 7.6

Soil degradation has many causes Soil degradation results from deforestation, agriculture and overgrazing Over the past 50 years, soil degradation has reduced global grain production by 13% FIGURE 7.7

Agriculture and the Environment Increased demand for food has led to an expansion of cropland and techniques that produce higher yields This has led to worldwide environmental degradation The main causes of degradation are: Soil Erosion Desertification Overgrazing Salinization and Waterlogging Groundwater Depletion and Contamination Surface Water Impacts Simplification and Substitution

Agriculture and the Environment Key is increased soil conservation Systems to reduce soil erosion: Intercropping Terracing Contour planting and strip cropping Crop rotation Reduce tillage Remove land from agriculture

We are producing more food per person FIGURE 8.1 Food security = the guarantee of an adequate, reliable, and available food supply to all people at all times

We face both too little and too much food Undernourishment = people receive less than 90% of their daily caloric needs Mainly in developing countries Malnutrition = a shortage of nutrients the body needs The diet lacks adequate vitamins and minerals Overnutrition = receiving too many calories each day In Canada, 48% of adults exceed their healthy weight and ~25% are obese Between 1981 and 2009, measured obesity doubled Obesity in Canada: A joint report from the Public Health Agency of Canada and the Canadian Institute for Health Information (2011) https://secure.cihi.ca/estore/productFamily.htm?locale=en&pf=PFC1636 Obesity in Canada is a joint report from the Canadian Population Health Initiative of the Canadian Institute for Health Information and the Public Health Agency of Canada. The joint report examines the prevalence of obesity among adults, children, youth and Aboriginal Peoples; presents new analyses of the determinants of obesity using innovative measures; and reports on the impact of obesity in Canada. In addition, Canadian and international lessons learned in obesity prevention and reduction are highlighted.

New Horizons in World Agriculture The Green Revolution: the use of new technology, crop varieties and farming practices introduced to developing countries the Green Revolution led to a tripling of grain yields between 1950 and 1990 From 1900 to 2000, humans expanded the world’s total cultivated area by 33% and energy inputs increased by 80 times: Synthetic fertilizers Chemical pesticides Irrigation Heavy equipment

New Horizons in World Agriculture Shortcomings of the Green Revolution limited participation by small, subsistence farmers increased mechanization and farm size increased commercialization loss of genetic diversity (monocultures) reduction in soil fertility and increased erosion potential soil damage and water resource depletion from increased irrigation many regions initially bypassed by the Green Revolution

Pests and pollinators Pest = any organism that damages valuable crops Weed = any plant that competes with crops FIGURE 8.4 Armyworms easily defoliate monocultures

Many thousands of chemical pesticides have been developed Pesticides = poisons that target pest organisms Insecticides = target insects Herbicides = target plants Fungicides = target fungi 91% of pesticide sales are for agricultural purposes 85% of pesticides sold in Canada are herbidices

Pests evolve resistance to pesticides Resistance is passed through their genes to insect offspring Pesticides stop being effective Evolutionary arms race: chemists increase chemical toxicity to compete with resistant pests

Biological control pits one organism against another Biological control (Biocontrol) = uses a pest’s natural predators to control the pest Problem. Mongoose in Hawaii to kill rats. Have killed ground nesting birds. FIGURE 8.6

Biocontrol agents themselves may become pests No one can predict the effects of an introduced species The agent may have “nontarget” effects on the environment and surrounding economies Removing a biocontrol agent is harder than halting pesticide use Due to potential problems, proposed biocontrol use must be carefully planned and regulated

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) combines biocontrol and chemical methods IPM uses multiple techniques to suppress pests Biocontrol Chemicals, when necessary Population monitoring Habitat alteration Crop rotation and transgenic crops Alternative tillage methods Mechanical pest removal

We depend on insects to pollinate crops Pollination = male plant sex cells fertilize female sex cells Value of insect pollination services in Canada is $1.2 billion Animals pollinate 75% of the world’s staple crops and 90% of all non-food flowering plants. FIGURE 8.8 Flowers are evolutionary adaptations to attract pollinators

Conservation of pollinators is vital Beekeepers are hired regularly to bring honeybee colonies to crops for pollination To conserve bees: Reduce or eliminate pesticide use http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/huge-honey-bee-losses-across-canada-dash- hopes-of-upturn-1.1699198 http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/pesticide-linked-to-bee-deaths-to-get-tighter- regulation-1.1829858

Crossbreeding and Genetic Engineering Early efforts at crop improvement - Crossbreeding, or artificial selection - Many current crops produced this way - Requires long periods of time Genetic engineering - Adding, removing or changing DNA directly - produces genetically modified organisms (GMOs) - Similar to crossbreeding, but can use new genes - Much faster than crossbreeding - Can yield improvements quickly, but controversial

Genetic engineering is like, and unlike, traditional agricultural breeding Scientific techniques to develop more productive crops and livestock has been around for more than a century Similar: Both alter gene pools for preferred characteristics Both apply to plants and animals Different: Traditional breeding uses genes from the same species Selective breeding deals with whole organisms, not just genes In traditional breeding, genes come together on their own

weighing the issues GM foods and you Do you think you have ever eaten a food product that contained genetically modified organisms? As much as 70% of the food products on shelves in North American grocery stores contain at least some GM ingredients. Check your kitchen cupboards for any foods that contain products or ingredients made from corn, soy, or canola.

Biotechnology is transforming the products around us FIGURE 8.12 2006: Globally, GM foods grew on 106 million hectares of farmland, producing $6.15 billion worth of crops

Biotechnology Concerns of transgenic crops herbicide resistant crops will encourage the use of herbicides (kills non-target species and pollutes soil/water) crops might transfer their herbicide tolerance to closely related weeds (super weeds) built-in pesticides will promote rapid evolution of resistant pests (super pests) may permanently alter wild plants and reduce diversity genetically engineered seeds add to production costs only a small group of N.A. and European companies will control most of the worlds certified seed supply health concerns have led to a debate about labelling

Precautionary principle Supporters make the following points: GM crops pose no ill health effects They benefit the environment by using less herbicides Herbicide-resistant crops encourage no-till farming GM crops reduce carbon emissions by needing fewer fuel-burning tractors and sequestering carbon in the soil by no-till farming Critics argue that we should adopt the precautionary principle = don’t do any new action until it is understood CBC Guardian http://www.cbc.ca/news/interactives/gm-salmon/ http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2011/oct/19/gm-crops-insecurity-superweeds-pesticides

Debate over GM foods involves more than science Ethical issues play a large role People don’t like “tinkering” with “natural” foods With increasing use, people are forced to use GM products, or go to special effort to avoid them Multinational corporations threaten the small farmer Research is funded by corporations that will profit if GM foods are approved for use Crops that benefit small, poor farmers are not widely commercialized

Sustainable Agriculture Sustainable agriculture = does not deplete soil, pollute water, or decrease genetic diversity Low-input agriculture = uses smaller amounts of pesticide, fertilizers, growth hormones, water, and fossil fuel energy than industrial agriculture Organic agriculture = Uses no synthetic fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides, or herbicides Relies on biological approaches (composting and biocontrol) 2009: Organic Products Regulations Multi-ingredient products must be 95% organic Organic certification logo http://www.cog.ca/about_organics/organic-standards-and-regulations/ On June 30, 2009, the Organic Products Regulations (OPR) came into effect, making the Canadian Organic Standards (COS) mandatory. The OPR will legally require organic products to be certified according to the COS if they are traded across provincial or international borders or use the Canada Organic Logo

The benefits of organic farming For farmers: Lower input costs, enhanced income from higher-value products, reduced chemical costs and pollution Obstacles include the risks and costs of switching to new farming methods and less market infrastructure For consumers: Concern about pesticide’s health risks A desire to improve environmental quality Obstacles include the added expense and less aesthetically appealing appearance of the product

Locally supported agriculture is growing The average food product sold in North America travels at least 2300 km between the farm and the shelf, and is often chemically treated to preserve freshness and colour. Farmers and consumers are supporting local agriculture Fresh, local produce in season Community-supported agriculture = consumers pay farmers in advance for a share of their yield Consumers get fresh food Farmers get a guaranteed income Community gardens = areas where residents can grow their own food Makaria Farm Alderlea Farm

Summary Intensive commercial agriculture has substantial negative environmental impacts If our planet will be able to support 9 billion humans, we must shift to sustainable agriculture Biological pest control Organic agriculture Pollinator protection Preservation of native crop diversity Careful, responsible genetic modification of food http://feedingninebillion.com/landing Feeding Nine Billion: A Solution to the Global Food Crisis by Dr. Evan Fraser