Model based Software Testing Functional Testing Aditya P. Mathur Purdue University Fall 2005 Last update: August 2005

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Learning Objectives What is functional testing? How to perform functional testing? What are clues, test requirements, and test specifications? How to generate test inputs? What are equivalence partitioning, boundary value testing, domain testing, state testing, and decision table testing?

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur What is Functional Testing? When test inputs are generated using functional specifications, we say that we are doing functional testing. Functional testing tests how well a program meets the functionality requirements.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur The Methodology The derivation of test inputs is based on functional specifications. Clues are obtained from the specifications. Clues lead to test requirements. Test requirements lead to test specifications. Test specifications are then used to actually execute the program under test.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test Methodology Specifications Clues Test specificationsTest requirements ProgramTest driver Expected behavior Actual behavior Program output is correct Oracle Program has failed; make a note and proceed with testing or get into the debug mode. or Until specs. Exhausted.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Specifications Inputs and tasks: Perform tasks Given inputs

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Specifications (contd.) Input properties Input must satisfy Function f is a pre-condition on input

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Specifications (contd.) Two types of pre-conditions are considered: Validated: those that are required to be validated by the program under test and an error action is required to be performed if the condition is not true. Assumed: those that are assumed to be true and not checked by the program under test.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Specification: Example For the sort program: Inputs are: N pointer to a sequence of length N pointer to an area in memory where the output sequence is to be placed.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Specification: Example (contd.) Tasks to be performed: Sort the sequence in ascending order Return 1 if sorting is successful, -1 otherwise.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Preconditions for sort Validated: N>0 On failure return -1; sorting considered unsuccessful. Assumed: The input sequence contains N integers. The output area has space for at least N integers.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Deriving pre-conditions Pre-conditions result from properties of inputs. Example: alpha_sequence(name) alpha_sequence is the string obtained from name by removing all characters other then A-Z and a-z. Thus, if name is “A12C” then alpha_name is “AC”.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Deriving pre-conditions (contd.) This property could also lead to the pre-condition: Assumed: the string alpha_ sequence(name) is identical to or shorter than the string name. This leads to the following pre-condition: Validated: the string alpha_sequence(name) is identical to or shorter than the string name. On failure: print “invalid name”.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Post-conditions A post-condition specifies a property of the output of a program. The general format of a post-condition is: if condition then effect-1 {else effect-2} Example: For the sort program a post-condition is: if N>0 then {the output sequence has the same elements as in the input sequence and in ascending order.}

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Post-condition (contd.) This could be stated more formally as: if N>0 then { and each is a member of the input sequence and sort returns 1. } else {the output sequence is undefined and sort returns -1. }

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Post-condition (contd.) Another example: if (A=B) and (B=C) then return “equilateral”; Can you complete the above post-condition for a program that is required to classify a triangle given the length of three sides? Convention: Do not nest if-then-else conditions while specifying a post- condition.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Incompleteness of Specifications Specifications may be incomplete or ambiguous. Example post-condition: if user places cursor on the name field then read a string This post-condition does not specify any limit on the length of the input string hence is incomplete.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Ambiguous Specifications It also does not make it clear as to whether a string should be input only after the user has placed the cursor on the name field and clicked the mouse or simply placed the cursor on the name field. and hence is ambiguous.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Clues: Summary Clues are: Pre-conditions Post-conditions Variables, e.g. A is a length implying thereby that its value cannot be negative. Operations, e.g. “search a list of names” or “find the average of total scores” Definitions, e.g. “filename(name) is a name with no spaces.”

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Clues (contd.) Ideally, variables, operations and definitions should be a part of at least one pre- or post-condition. However, this may not be the case as specifications are not always written formally. Hence look out for variables, operations, and definitions within a specification !

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test Requirements A test requirement is a description of how to test the program that is under test. Here is a sample test requirement for a program that classifies a triangle given the length of three sides. A, B, C are non-zero and positive. One of A, B, C is negative; error condition. One of A, B, C is zero; error condition.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test Requirements-Derivation Test requirements are derived from clues. For example, consider the following pre-conditions (clues): Assumed: A, B, and C are lengths Validated: A>0, B>0, C>0 These pre-conditions on A, B, and C lead to the test requirement given on the previous slide.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test Requirements-Derivation Note that we have combined the pre-condition for each input variable into one condition. This is done only for inconvenience! It is recommended that pre-conditions be separated for each variable.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test Requirements-Derivation Note also that each validated pre-condition results in at least two requirements: one for the validated part and the other for the failure part. In our example above we did not list all requirements. For example, we are content with testing “one of A, B, C is negative; error condition.”

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test Requirements-Derivation For example, the partial post-condition: if (A=B) and (B=C) then return “equilateral” Post-conditions also lead to test requirements. leads to the following test requirement: A=B and B=C.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Compound Validated Pre-conditions Compound pre-conditions are ones that use one or more and and or connectors in some combination. Examples: validated compound pre-conditions: Pre-condition: A and B Pre-condition: user places the mouse over the name field and clicks it.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Compound Validated Pre-conditions The first of the above pre-conditions leads to four requirements: A true, B true(This is the validated part) A false, B true(This and the remaining are failures) A true, B false A false, B false You may work out the requirements for compound pre-condition with the or connector.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Compound Validated pre-conditions Compound validated pre-conditions could become quite complex. Example: (A and (B or C)) Brute force method will lead to 8 test requirements.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Compound Validated pre-conditions In general this will lead to too many test requirements. We can prune them by leaving out those requirements that are unlikely to reveal a program error. For example, consider the validated pre-condition: A or B.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Pruning Test Requirements There are four possible test requirements: A true, B true A false, B true A true, B false A false, B false Consider a correct C implementation: if (!(A || B)) exit_with_error(“Error: A is %d, B is %d”, A, B); else.. {/* the validated code comes here.*/}

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Possible Errors Programmer forgets to check for one of the two (A and B) cases resulting in the code: if (!A) exit_with_error(“Error: A is %d, B is %d”, A, B); or if (!B) exit_with_error(“Error: A is %d, B is %d”, A, B);

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Possible Errors (contd.) Or, the programmer uses a wrong logical operator as in: if (!(A && B)) exit_with_error(“Error: A is %d, B is %d”, A, B); Let us analyze how the four different tests will perform in each of the four implementations: one correct, and three incorrect ones.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Truth table: or condition A B!(A || B)!(A&&B) !A!B TFFTFT FTFTTF FFTTTT TTFFFF Inputs Correct implementation Incorrect implementations Notice this one: will it help find any of the three possible errors?

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Truth Table Analysis Case 1: A test input with A=true and B=false will cause the correct program to evaluate the condition to false. The two incorrect implementations, !(A&&B) and (!B) will evaluate the condition to true.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Truth Table Analysis (contd.) Both incorrect implementations will print the error message. The oracle will observe that the correct and the incorrect implementations behave differently. It will therefore announce failure for each incorrect implementation thereby pointing to an error in the code. End of Case 1.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Truth Table Analysis (contd.) Case 2: Test input A=false and B=true will reveal the error in the two incorrect implementations, !(A&&B) and (!A). Case 3: Test input A=false and B=false might find a fault in the then branch of the if condition.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Truth Table Analysis (contd.) Case 4: Test input A=true and B=true might find a fault in the else branch of the if condition. Thus, all four test inputs are likely to be useful.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Truth Table Analysis (contd.) However, if we were to check for the correct implementation of the condition A or B, then only the first two inputs are necessary. In this example, reducing the number of test specifications from 4 to 2 does not lead to any significant savings. When will the savings be significant?

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Assumed pre-conditions Each assumed pre-condition is likely to result in a test requirement. Example: Assumed: MODE is “on ground” or “flying” This leads to two requirements: MODE is “on ground”, MODE is not “flying” MODE is not “on ground”, MODE is “flying”

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Assumed pre-conditions These can be simplified to: MODE is “on ground” MODE is “flying”

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Clues from code? Yes, clues can also be derived by scanning the code. However, such clues might be redundant and incomplete if coverage measurement and its use is planned. In the absence of coverage measurement, it is a good idea to scan the code and find clues.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Clues from code (contd.) Examine internal variables. These may lead to new test requirements. Example: Suppose that variable length is input and denotes the length of an array. In the code we find: int last_index=length+1; This leads to the following test requirements:

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Clues from code (contd.) an array of length zero array of length 1 array with more than one element Later we will see how these clues and requirements might be derived, with more certainty, using boundary-value analysis. Another example: Consider the sort program for which we have seen the specifications.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Clues from Code (contd.) The specifications do not indicate what algorithm is to be used for sorting the input array. A programmer might decide to use different algorithms for different array sizes. When scanning the code we may see: if (scan<min_length) simple_sort(); else quicksort();

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Clues from Code (contd.) Variable size and the check against min_length give us a clue for new test requirements. These are: size is equal to or greater than min_length Later we will see how this clue and requirements might be derived, with certainty, using branch coverage.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test Requirements Checklist Obtaining clues and deriving test requirements can become a tedious task. To keep it from overwhelming us it is a good idea to make a checklist of clues. This checklist is then transformed into a checklist of test requirements by going through each clue and deriving test requirements from it.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test Specifications A test requirement indicates “how” to test a program. But it does not provide exact values of inputs. A test requirement is used to derive test specification, which is the exact specification of values of input and environment variables.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test specifications (contd.) There might not be a one-to-one correspondence between test requirements and test specifications. A test requirement checklist might contain 50 entries. These might result in only 22 test specifications. The fewer the tests the better but only if these tests are of good quality !

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test specifications (contd.) We will discuss test quality when discussing test assessment. A test specification looks like this: Test 2: global variable all_files is initially false. next_record is set to 1. Upon return expect: all_files to be true next_record is last_record+1

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test specifications (contd.) Each test is given a number which serves as its identifier. Notice the format of a test specification: There is a set of input values. There is a set of expected values upon return from execution. Any side effects on files or networks must also be specified here. In essence, all observable effects must be specified in the “Expect” part of a test specification.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test Specifications (contd.) Any side effects on files or networks must also be specified. In essence, all observable effects must be specified in the “Expect” part of a test specification. Similarly, values of all input variables, global or otherwise, must also be specified.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test Requirements to Specifications The test requirements checklist guides the process of deriving test specifications. Initially all entries in the checklist are unmarked or set to 0. Each time a test is generated from a requirement it is marked or the count incremented by 1.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test Requirements to Specifications Thus, at any point in time, one could assess the progress made towards the generation of test specifications. One could also determine how many tests have been generated using any test requirement.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test Requirements to Specifications Once a test requirement has been marked or its count is more than 0 we say that it has been satisfied. Some rules of thumb to use while designing tests: Try to satisfy multiple requirements using only one test. Satisfy all test requirements.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test Requirements to Specifications Avoid reuse of same values of a variable in different tests. Generating new tests by varying an existing one is likely to lead to tests that test the same part of the code as the previous one. Though we try to combine several test requirements to generate one test case, this is not advisable when considering error conditions. In testing, variety helps!

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test Requirements to Specifications For example, consider the following: speed_dial, an interval speed_dial<0,error speed_dial>120, error zones, an interval zones <5, error zones>10, error

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test Requirements to Specifications One test specification obtained by combining the two requirements above is: speed_dial=-1 zone=3 Now, if the code to handle these error conditions is: if (speed_dial 120) error_exit(“Incorrect speed_dial”); if (zone 10) error_exit(“Incorrect zone”); error

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test Requirements to Specifications For our test, the program will exit before it reaches the second if statement. Thus, it will miss detecting the error in coding the test for zone. Also, do not assume an error test to satisfy any other test requirement. Example: Consider the function: myfunction(int X, int Y); A test for the erroneous value of X might not test the code that uses Y.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test Requirements to Specifications Test specifications must not mention internal variables. Remember, a test specification aids in setting input variables to suitable values before the test begins. Values of internal variables are computed during program execution. However, there are exceptions to the above rule. Can you think of one ?

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Equivalence Partitioning The input domain is usually too large for exhaustive testing. It is therefore partitioned into a finite number of sub-domains for the selection of test inputs. Each sub-domain is known as an equivalence class and serves as a source of at least one test input.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Equivalence Partitioning Input domain Too many test inputs. Four test inputs, one selected from each sub-domain Input domain partitioned into four sub-domains.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur How to partition? Inputs to a program provide clues to partitioning. Example 1: Suppose that program P takes an integer X as input X. For X =0 task T2.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur How to partition? (contd.) The input domain is prohibitively large because X can assume a large number of values. However, we expect P to behave the same way for all X<0. Similarly, we expect P to perform the same way for all values of X>=0. We therefore partition the input domain of P into two sub- domains.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Two sub-domains One test case: X=-3 Another test case: X=-15 All test inputs in the X<0 sub-domain are considered equivalent. The assumption is that if one test input in this sub-domain reveals an error in the program, so will the others. This is true of the test inputs in the X>=0 sub-domain also. X<0X>=0 Equivalence class

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Non-overlapping Partitions In the previous example, the two equivalence classes are non- overlapping. In other words the two sub-domains are disjoint. When the sub-domains are disjoint, it is sufficient to pick one test input from each equivalence class to test the program.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Non-overlapping Partitions An equivalence class is considered covered when at least one test has been selected from it. In partition testing our goal is to cover all equivalence classes.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Overlapping Partitions Example 2: Suppose that program P takes three integers X, Y and Z. It is known that: X<Y Z>Y

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Overlapping partitions X<Y X>=Y Z>Y Z<=Y X Y X=3, Y=4, Z=7 X<Y, Z<=Y X=2, Y=3, Z=1 X>=Y, Z>Y X=15, Y=4, Z=7 X>=Y, Z<=Y X=15, Y=4, Z=1

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Overlapping Partition-Test Selection In this example, we could select 4 test cases as: X=4, Y=7, Z=1satisfies X<Y X=4, Y=2, Z=1satisfies X>=Y X=1, Y=7, Z=9satisfies Z>Y X=1, Y=7, Z=2satisfies Z<=Y Thus, we have one test case from each equivalence class.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Overlapping Partitions-Test Selection However, we may also select only 2 test inputs and satisfy all four equivalence classes: X=4, Y=7, Z=1satisfies X<Y and Z<=Y X=4, Y=2, Z=3satisfies X>=Y and Z>Y Thus, we have reduced the number of test cases from 4 to 2 while covering each equivalence class.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Partitioning using non-numeric data In the previous two examples the inputs were integers. One can derive equivalence classes for other types of data also. Example 3: Suppose that program P takes one character X and one string Y as inputs. P performs task T1 for all lower case characters and T2 for upper case characters. Also, it performs task T3 for the null string and T4 for all other strings.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Partitioning using non-numeric data X: lc X:UC Y: null Y: not null X: lc, Y: null X: lc, Y: not null X: UC, Y: null X: UC, Y: not null lc: Lower case character UC: Upper case character null: null string.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Non-numeric Data Once again we have overlapping partitions. We can select only 2 test inputs to cover all four equivalence classes. These are: X: lower case, Y: null string X: upper case, Y: not a null string

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Guidelines for equivalence partitioning Input condition specifies a range: create one for the valid case and two for the invalid cases. e.g. for a<=X<=b the classes are a<=X<=b (valid case) X b (the invalid cases)

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Guidelines (contd.) Input condition specifies a member of a set: create one for the valid value and one for the invalid (not in the set) value. Input condition specifies a value: create one for the valid value and two for incorrect values (below and above the valid value). This may not be possible for certain data types, e.g. for boolean.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Sufficiency of Partitions In the previous examples we derived equivalence classes based on the conditions satisfied by the input data. Then we selected just enough tests to cover each partition. Think of the advantages and disadvantages of this approach!

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Boundary Value Analysis (BVA) Another way to generate test cases is to look for boundary values. Suppose a program takes an integer X as input. In the absence of any information, we assume that X=0 is a boundary. Inputs to the program might lie on the boundary or on either side of the boundary.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur BVA (contd.) This leads to 3 test inputs: X=0, X=-20, and X=14. Notice that using BVA we get 3 equivalence classes. One of these three classes contains only one value (X=0), the other two are large! Note that the values -20 and 14 are on either side of the boundary and are chosen arbitrarily.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur BVA (contd.) Now suppose that a program takes two integers X and Y and that x1<=X<=x2 and y1<=Y<=y2. x1x2 y2 y

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur BVA (contd.) In this case the four sides of the rectangle represent the boundary. The heuristic for test selection in this case is: Select one test at each corner (1, 2, 3, 4). Select one test just outside of each of the four sides of the boundary (5, 6, 7, 8)

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur BVA (contd.) Select one test just inside of each of the four sides of the boundary (10, 11, 12, 13). Select one test case inside of the bounded region (9). Select one test case outside of the bounded region (14). How many equivalence classes do we get?

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur BVA (contd.) In the previous examples we considered only numeric data. BVA can be done on any type of data. For example, suppose that a program takes a string S and an integer X as inputs. The constraints on inputs are: length(S)<=100 and a<=X<=b Can you derive the test cases using BVA?

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur BVA Applied to Output Variables Just as we applied BVA to input data, we can apply it to output data. Doing so gives us equivalence classes for the output domain. We then try to find test inputs that will cover each output equivalence class.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Finite State Machines (FSMs) A state machine is an abstract representation of actions taken by a program or anything else that functions! It is specified as a quintuple: A: a finite input alphabet Q: a finite set of states q0: initial state which is a member of Q.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur FSMs (contd.) T: state transitions which is a mapping Q x A--> Q F: A finite set of final states, F is a subset of Q. Example: Here is a finite state machine that recognizes integers ending with a carriage return character. A={0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, CR} Q={q0,q1,q2} q0: initial state

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur FSMs (contd.) T: {((q0,d),q1),(q1,d),q1), (q1,CR),q2)} F: {q2} A state diagram is an easier to understand specification of a state machine. For the above machine, the state diagram appears on the next slide.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur State diagram q0q1 d d CR q2 Final state indicated by concentric circles. States indicated by circles. State transitions indicated by labeled arrows from one state the another (which could be the same). Each label must be from the alphabet. It is also known as an event. d: denotes a digit

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur State Diagram-Actions q0q1 q2 d/set i to d d /add 10*d to i CR/output i Can you describe what this machine computes?Can you construct a regular expression that describes all strings recognized by this state machine? x/y: x is an element of the alphabet and y is an action. i is initialized to d when the machine moves from state q0 to q1. i is incremented by 10*d when the machine moves from q1 to q1. The current value of i is output when a CR is encountered.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur State Machine: Languages Each state machine recognizes a language. The language recognized by a state machine is the set S of all strings such that: when any string s in S is input to the state machine the machine goes through a sequence of transitions and ends up in the final state after having scanned all elements of s.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur State diagram-Errors q0q1 q2 d/set I to d d /add 10*d to I CR/output I q4 has been added to the set of states. It represents an error state. Notice that reset is a new member added to the alphabet. CR/output error q4 reset

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur State Diagram-Code A state diagram can be transformed into a program using case analysis. Let us look at a C program fragment that embodies logic represented by the previous state diagram. There is one function for each action. digit is assumed to be provided by the lexical analyzer.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Program for “integer” state machine case q0: i=digit;/* perform action. */ state=q1;/* set next state. */ break;/* event digit is done. */ case q1: i=i+10*digit;/* Add the next digit. */ state=q1; break; /*…complete the program. */ /* state is global, with values q0, q1, q2. i is also global.*/ switch (state) void event_digit() {

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Checking State Diagrams Unreachable state: One that cannot be reached from q0 using any sequence of transitions. Dead state: One that cannot be left once it is reached.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test Requirements Every state must be reached at least once, Obtain 100% state coverage. The textbook talks about duplicate transitions. No transitions are duplicate if the state machine definition we have given is used. Every transition must be exercised at least once. Obtain 100% transition coverage.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Example: Test Requirements For the “integer” state machine: state machine transitions: event digit in state q0 event CR in state q0 event digit in state q1 event CR in state q1 event reset in state q4

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur More testing of state machines? Yes, it is possible! When we learn about path coverage we will discuss how more test requirements can be derived from a state diagram.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Test Specifications As before, test specifications are derived from test requirements. It is advisable not to test the entire machine with one test case. In the absence of dead states, all states and transitions might be reachable by one test. Develop test specifications for our “integer” state machine.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Decision Tables Requirements of certain programs are specified by decision tables. A decision table is useful when specifying complex decision logic

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Decision Tables A decision table has two parts: condition part action part The two together specify under what condition will an action be performed.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Decision Table-Nomenclature C: denotes a condition A: denotes an action Y: denotes true N:denotes false X: denotes action to be taken. Blank in condition: denotes “don’t care” Blank in action: denotes “do not take the action”

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Bank Example Consider a bank software responsible for debiting from an account. The relevant conditions and actions are: C1: The account number is correct C2: The signature matches C3: There is enough money in the account A1: Give money A2: Give statement indicating insufficient funds A3: Call vigilance to check for fraud!

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Decision tables

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Example (contd.) A2 is to be performed when C1 is true and C2 and C3 are false or when C1 and C2 are true and C3 is false. A1 is to be performed when C1, C2, and C3 are true. A3 is to be performed when C2 and C3 are false.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Default Rules Are all possible combinations of conditions covered? No! Which ones are not covered? We need a default action for the uncovered combinations. A default action could be an error report or a reset.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Example-Test Requirements Each column is a rule and corresponds to at least one test requirement. If there are n columns then there are at least n test requirements. What is the maximum number of test requirements?

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Example-Test Specifications For each test requirement find a set of input values of variables such that the selected rule is satisfied. When this test is input to the program the output must correspond to the action specified in the decision table. Should the testing depend on the order in which the conditions are evaluated?

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Summary Clues, test requirements, and test specifications. Specifications, pre-conditions, and post-conditions. Clues from code. Test requirements catalog. Equivalence partitioning and boundary value analysis. Testing state machines.

CS 590T Aditya P. Mathur Summary-continued Finite state machine State diagram Events and actions Unreachable and dead states Test requirements and specifications for state machines Decision tables, rules, actions