CHAPTER 6: Memory Essentials of Psychology, by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Memory An Information-Processing Model The Sensory Register Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Autobiographical Memory Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Information-Processing Model of Memory –A model of memory in which information must pass through discrete stages via the processes of attention, encoding, storage, and retrieval. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Memory Types of Memory Sensory Memory – Records information from the senses for up to three seconds – Examples are Iconic (Visual) Memory and Echoic (Auditory) Memory Short-Term Memory – Holds about seven items for up to twenty seconds before the material is forgotten or transferred to long-term memory Long-Term Memory – Relatively permanent, can hold vast amounts of information Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

The Sensory Register Testing for Iconic Memory Invented by George Sperling A letter array is shown briefly After array is gone, tone signals which row to report Subjects recalled more letters when signaled to recall only one row compared to trying to recall all the letters Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

The Sensory Register Duration of Iconic Memory Sperling (1960) found that an iconic image began to fade after one-third of a second and completely disappeared after one full second. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Short-Term Memory Capacity Memory-Span Test Read the top row of digits, then look away and repeat them back in order. Continue until a mistake is made. The average capacity is seven items of information. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Short-Term Memory Capacity Increased Memory Span Two students practiced memory span tasks for an hour 3-4 days/week. After six months, digit span had increased from 7 to 80 items. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Short-Term Memory Capacity Chunking –Process of grouping distinct bits of information into larger wholes to increase short-term memory capacity. Take 5 seconds to memorize as much as possible on the next slide. Then, try to reproduce the arrangement of pieces. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Short-Term Memory Capacity The Value of Chunking Was the number correct around seven pieces? Or, was the information chunked? Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Short-Term Memory Duration of Short-Term Memory Subjects memorized nonsense syllables, (e.g., MJK, ZRW). To prevent rehearsal, they were given a distractor task during the waiting period. When a cue was given, subjects tried to recall the letters. Short-term memories vanish within twenty seconds. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Short-Term Memory Functions of Short-Term Memory Working Memory –Term used to describe short- term memory as an active workspace where information is accessible for current use. Baddeley’s model of working memory contains three elements: –A “central executive” –Auditory working memory –Visuo-spatial working memory Material can enter conscious workspace from senses or from long-term memory. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Short-Term Memory Functions of Short-Term Memory The Serial-Position Effect Serial-Position Curve –Indicates the tendency to recall more items from the beginning and end of a list than from the middle. Both groups of subjects showed primacy effects, good recall of first items on list. Only the no-delay group showed recency effects, good recall for last items. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Long-Term Memory Encoding Elaborative Rehearsal Subjects were shown lists of words and asked to use one of three strategies: –Visual: Is the word printed in capital letters? –Acoustic: Does the word rhyme with _____? –Semantic: Does the word fit the sentence _________? The more thought involved (elaborative rehearsal), the better was their memory. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Long-Term Memory Storage Procedural Memory –Stored long-term knowledge of learned habits and skills. –Examples are how to drive, ride a bike, tie one’s shoes, etc. Declarative Memory –Stored long-term knowledge of facts about ourselves and the world. –Includes both semantic (nonpersonal) and episodic (personal) memories Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Long-Term Memory Storage Semantic Networks Long-Term Memory Storage Semantic Networks § Semantic Network r A complex web of semantic associations that link items in memory such that retrieving one item triggers the retrieval of others as well r Supported by research using the lexical decision making task Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Long-Term Memory Storage The Hippocampal Region Hippocampus: Part of the limbic system that plays a key role in encoding and transferring new information into long-term memory. Anterograde amnesia –Inability to store new information Retrograde amnesia –Inability to retrieve memories from the past Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Long-Term Memory Retrieval Explicit Memory –The types of memory elicited through the conscious retrieval of recollections in response to direct questions. –Conscious retention, direct tests, disrupted by amnesia, encoded in the hippocampus Implicit Memory –A nonconscious recollection of a prior experience that is revealed indirectly, by its effects on performance. –Nonconscious retention, indirect tests, intact with amnesia, encoded elsewhere Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Long-Term Memory Retrieval Context-Dependent Memory Russian-English bilinguals were prompted in English and in Russian to recall stories. They recalled more Russian-experienced events when interviewed in Russian and more English-experienced events when interviewed in English. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Long-Term Memory Retrieval Retention Without Awareness Amnesic patients and normal controls were tested for memory of words learned previously. Amnesics performed poorly on explicit memory tasks. However, performance on implicit memory tasks was similar to control subjects. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Long-Term Memory Retrieval Implicit Memory in Everyday Life Déjà vu –A sense of familiarity but no real memory Eyewitness transference –Face is familiar, but situation in which they remembering seeing face is incorrect Unintentional plagiarism –Take credit for someone else’s ideas without awareness Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Long-Term Memory Forgetting The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Long-Term Memory Forgetting Long-Term Forgetting Curve How much Spanish vocabulary is remembered over time? Most forgetting occurs within the first three years. After that, memory remains stable. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Long-Term Memory Forgetting Can You Recognize a Penny? § One reason people forget is due to lack of encoding. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Long-Term Memory Forgetting Proactive Interference –The tendency for previously learned material to disrupt the recall of new information Retroactive Interference –The tendency for new information to disrupt the memory of previously learned material Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Long-Term Memory Forgetting Interference and Forgetting Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Long-Term Memory Reconstruction “Office” Schema Study this picture for 30 seconds. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

List as many objects as you can recall from the photograph you just saw. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

How to Improve Memory MnemonicsMnemonics –Memory aids designed to facilitate the recall of new information. Increase Practice Time Increase the Depth of Processing Hierarchical Organization Verbal Mnemonics Method of Loci Peg-Word Method Minimize Interference Utilize Context Effects Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Autobiographical Memory Autobiographical Memory Autobiographical Memory –The recollections people have of their own personal experiences and observations. People’s memories are most vivid for times of transition. In college, these are memories from the beginning of the first year and end of the last year. Memorable Transitions Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Autobiographical Memory Flashbulb Memories –Highly vivid and enduring memories, typically for events that are dramatic and emotional Childhood Amnesia –The inability of most people to recall events from before the age of three or four Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing