Climate and Terrestrial Biodiversity Chapter 5 Climate and Terrestrial Biodiversity

BIOMES: CLIMATE AND LIFE ON LAND Different climates lead to different communities of organisms, especially vegetation.

Convection Cells Heat and moisture are distributed over the earth’s surface by vertical currents, which form six giant convection cells at different latitudes. Figure 5-6

Ocean Currents: Distributing Heat and Nutrients Ocean currents influence climate by distributing heat from place to place and mixing and distributing nutrients. Figure 5-7

Topography and Local Climate: Land Matters Interactions between land and oceans and disruptions of airflows by mountains and cities affect local climates. Figure 5-8

Figure 3-9

BIOMES: CLIMATE AND LIFE ON LAND Biomes – large terrestrial regions characterized by similar climate, soil, plants, and animals. Each biome contains many ecosystems whose communities have adapted to differences in climate, soil, and other environmental factors.

BIOMES: CLIMATE AND LIFE ON LAND Figure 5-9

Tropic of Cancer Equator Tropic of Capricorn High mountains Polar ice Polar grassland (arctic tundra) Tropic of Capricorn Figure 5.9 Natural capital: the earth’s major biomes—the main types of natural vegetation in various undisturbed land areas—result primarily from differences in climate. Each biome contains many ecosystems whose communities have adapted to differences in climate, soil, and other environmental factors. Human ecological footprints (Figures 3 and 4 on pp. S12–S15 in Supplement 4) have removed or altered much of the natural vegetation in some areas for farming, livestock grazing, lumber and fuelwood, mining, and construction. Temperate grassland Tropical grassland (savanna) Chaparral Coniferous forest Temperate deciduous forest Tropical forest Desert Fig. 5-9, p. 106

BIOMES: CLIMATE AND LIFE ON LAND Biome type is determined by precipitation, temperature and soil type Figure 5-10

Decreasing precipitation Cold Polar Tundra Subpolar Temperate Coniferous forest Decreasing temperature Desert Deciduous Forest Grassland Tropical Chaparral Figure 5.10 Natural capital: average precipitation and average temperature, acting together as limiting factors over a period of 30 or more years, determine the type of desert, grassland, or forest biome in a particular area. Although the actual situation is much more complex, this simplified diagram explains how climate determines the types and amounts of natural vegetation found in an area left undisturbed by human activities. (Used by permission of Macmillan Publishing Company, from Derek Elsom, The Earth, New York: Macmillan, 1992. Copyright © 1992 by Marshall Editions Developments Limited) Hot Desert Wet Savanna Rain forest Dry Tropical seasonal forest Scrubland Decreasing precipitation Fig. 5-10, p. 107

BIOMES: CLIMATE AND LIFE ON LAND Parallel changes occur in vegetation type occur when we travel from the equator to the poles or from lowlands to mountaintops. Figure 5-11

Elevation Latitude Tropical Forest Deciduous Forest Coniferous Forest Mountain ice and snow Tundra (herbs, lichens, mosses) Coniferous Forest Latitude Deciduous Forest Tropical Forest Figure 5.11 Natural capital: generalized effects of elevation (left) and latitude (right) on climate and biomes. Parallel changes in vegetation type occur when we travel from the equator to the poles or from lowlands to mountaintops. Tropical Forest Deciduous Forest Coniferous Forest Tundra (herbs, lichens, mosses) Polar ice and snow Fig. 5-11, p. 108

DESERT BIOMES Deserts are areas where evaporation exceeds precipitation. Deserts have little precipitation and little vegetation. Found in tropical, temperate and polar regions. Desert plants have adaptations that help them stay cool and get enough water.

DESERT BIOMES Variations in annual temperature (red) and precipitation (blue) in tropical, temperate and cold deserts. Figure 5-12

Tropical Desert Month Mean monthly temperature (C) Freezing point Mean monthly temperature (C) Mean monthly precipitation (mm) Figure 5.12 Natural capital: climate graphs showing typical variations in annual temperature (red) and precipitation (blue) in tropical, temperate, and cold deserts. Top photo shows a popular but destructive SUV rodeo in Saudi Arabia (tropical desert). Center photo shows saguaro cactus in the United States (temperate desert). Bottom photo shows a Bactrian camel in Mongolia’s Gobi (cold) desert. Month Fig. 5-12a, p. 109

Temperate Desert Month Mean monthly temperature (C) Freezing point Mean monthly temperature (C) Mean monthly precipitation (mm) Figure 5.12 Natural capital: climate graphs showing typical variations in annual temperature (red) and precipitation (blue) in tropical, temperate, and cold deserts. Top photo shows a popular but destructive SUV rodeo in Saudi Arabia (tropical desert). Center photo shows saguaro cactus in the United States (temperate desert). Bottom photo shows a Bactrian camel in Mongolia’s Gobi (cold) desert. Month Fig. 5-12b, p. 109

Polar Desert Month Mean monthly precipitation (mm) Freezing point Mean monthly precipitation (mm) Mean monthly temperature (°C) Figure 5.12 Natural capital: climate graphs showing typical variations in annual temperature (red) and precipitation (blue) in tropical, temperate, and cold deserts. Top photo shows a popular but destructive SUV rodeo in Saudi Arabia (tropical desert). Center photo shows saguaro cactus in the United States (temperate desert). Bottom photo shows a Bactrian camel in Mongolia’s Gobi (cold) desert. Month Fig. 5-12c, p. 109

DESERT BIOMES The flora and fauna in desert ecosystems adapt to their environment through their behavior and physiology. Figure 5-13

Primary to secondary consumer Secondary to higher-level consumer Red-tailed hawk Gambel's Quail Yucca Agave Jack rabbit Collared lizard Prickly pear cactus Roadrunner Darkling Beetle Figure 5.13 Natural capital: some components and interactions in a temperate desert ecosystem. When these organisms die, decomposers break down their organic matter into minerals that plants use. Colored arrows indicate transfers of matter and energy between producers, primary consumers (herbivores), secondary or higher-level consumers (carnivores), and decomposers. Organisms are not drawn to scale. Bacteria Diamondback rattlesnake Fungi Kangaroo rat Producer to primary consumer Primary to secondary consumer Secondary to higher-level consumer All producers and consumers to decomposers Fig. 5-13, p. 110

GRASSLANDS AND CHAPARRAL BIOMES Variations in annual temperature (red) and precipitation (blue). Figure 5-14

Tropical grassland (savanna) Freezing point Mean monthly temperature (C) Mean monthly precipitation (mm) Figure 5.14 Natural capital: climate graphs showing typical variations in annual temperature (red) and precipitation (blue) in tropical, temperate, and polar (arctic tundra) grasslands. Top photo shows wildebeests grazing on a savanna in Maasai Mara National Park in Kenya, Africa (tropical grassland). Center photo shows wildflowers in bloom on a prairie near East Glacier Park in the U.S. state of Montana (temperate grassland). Bottom photo shows arctic tundra with caribou in Alaska’s Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (polar grassland). Month Fig. 5-14a, p. 112

Temperate grassland Month Mean monthly temperature (C) Freezing point Mean monthly temperature (C) Mean monthly precipitation (mm) Figure 5.14 Natural capital: climate graphs showing typical variations in annual temperature (red) and precipitation (blue) in tropical, temperate, and polar (arctic tundra) grasslands. Top photo shows wildebeests grazing on a savanna in Maasai Mara National Park in Kenya, Africa (tropical grassland). Center photo shows wildflowers in bloom on a prairie near East Glacier Park in the U.S. state of Montana (temperate grassland). Bottom photo shows arctic tundra with caribou in Alaska’s Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (polar grassland). Month Fig. 5-14b, p. 112

Polar grassland (arctic tundra) Freezing point Mean monthly temperature (C) Mean monthly precipitation (mm) Figure 5.14 Natural capital: climate graphs showing typical variations in annual temperature (red) and precipitation (blue) in tropical, temperate, and polar (arctic tundra) grasslands. Top photo shows wildebeests grazing on a savanna in Maasai Mara National Park in Kenya, Africa (tropical grassland). Center photo shows wildflowers in bloom on a prairie near East Glacier Park in the U.S. state of Montana (temperate grassland). Bottom photo shows arctic tundra with caribou in Alaska’s Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (polar grassland). Month Fig. 5-14c, p. 112

GRASSLANDS AND CHAPARRAL BIOMES Grasslands (prairies) occur in areas too moist for desert and too dry for forests. Savannas are tropical grasslands with scattered tree and herds of hoofed animals.

Temperate Grasslands: Prairies The cold winters and hot dry summers have deep and fertile soil that make them ideal for growing crops and grazing cattle. Figure 5-15

Temperate Grasslands Temperate tall-grass prairie ecosystem in North America. Accumulated organic matter create deep, fertile Figure 5-16

Polar Grasslands Polar grasslands are covered with ice and snow except during a brief summer. Very fragile, recovers slowly from damage

Tundra (polar grasslands) Covers 10% of earth’s land. Most of the year, these treeless plains are bitterly cold with ice & snow. It has a 6 to 8 week summer w/ sunlight nearly 24 hours a day.                                            

Chaparral (temperate grassland) These are coastal areas. Winters are mild & wet, w/ summers being long, hot, & dry.

Chaparral Chaparral has a moderate climate but its dense thickets of spiny shrubs are subject to periodic fires. Higher rainfall in winter season creates greater risk of fire in dry summer season …more biomass. Ex: CA fires

FOREST BIOMES Variations in annual temperature (red) and precipitation (blue) in tropical, temperate, and polar forests. Figure 5-19

Tropical rain forest Month Mean monthly temperature (C) Freezing point Mean monthly temperature (C) Mean monthly precipitation (mm) Figure 5.19 Natural capital: climate graphs showing typical variations in annual temperature (red) and precipitation (blue) in tropical, temperate, and polar (cold) forests. Top photo shows the closed canopy of a tropical rain forest in the western Congo Basin of Gabon, Africa. Middle photo shows a temperate deciduous forest in the U.S. state of Rhode Island during the fall. Photo 9 in the Detailed Contents shows this same area of forest during winter. Bottom photo shows a northern coniferous forest in the Malheur National Forest and Strawberry Mountain Wilderness in the U.S. state of Oregon. Month Fig. 5-19a, p. 116

Temperate deciduous forest Freezing point Mean monthly temperature (C) Mean monthly precipitation (mm) Figure 5.19 Natural capital: climate graphs showing typical variations in annual temperature (red) and precipitation (blue) in tropical, temperate, and polar (cold) forests. Top photo shows the closed canopy of a tropical rain forest in the western Congo Basin of Gabon, Africa. Middle photo shows a temperate deciduous forest in the U.S. state of Rhode Island during the fall. Photo 9 in the Detailed Contents shows this same area of forest during winter. Bottom photo shows a northern coniferous forest in the Malheur National Forest and Strawberry Mountain Wilderness in the U.S. state of Oregon. Month Fig. 5-19b, p. 116

Polar evergreen coniferous forest (boreal forest, taiga) Freezing point Mean monthly temperature (C) Mean monthly precipitation (mm) Figure 5.19 Natural capital: climate graphs showing typical variations in annual temperature (red) and precipitation (blue) in tropical, temperate, and polar (cold) forests. Top photo shows the closed canopy of a tropical rain forest in the western Congo Basin of Gabon, Africa. Middle photo shows a temperate deciduous forest in the U.S. state of Rhode Island during the fall. Photo 9 in the Detailed Contents shows this same area of forest during winter. Bottom photo shows a northern coniferous forest in the Malheur National Forest and Strawberry Mountain Wilderness in the U.S. state of Oregon. Month Fig. 5-19c, p. 116

FOREST BIOMES Forests have enough precipitation to support stands of trees and are found in tropical, temperate, and polar regions.

Tropical Rain Forest Tropical rain forests have heavy rainfall and a rich diversity of species. Found near the equator. Have year-round uniformity warm temperatures and high humidity. Figure 5-20

Tropical Rain Forest Filling such niches enables species to avoid or minimize competition and coexist Figure 5-21

Emergent layer Harpy eagle Toco toucan Canopy Height (meters) Understory Woolly opossum Figure 5.21 Natural capital: stratification of specialized plant and animal niches in a tropical rain forest. Filling such specialized niches enables species to avoid or minimize competition for resources and results in the coexistence of a great variety of species. Shrub layer Brazilian tapir Ground layer Black-crowned antipitta Fig. 5-21, p. 118

Tropical Rain Forest Very high diversity Rapid recycling of nutrients: decompose quickly, nutrients are taken up by plants Soil is acidic and nutrient poor Slash & burn: land can only support crops or cattle for a year or two: heavy rains leach out remaining nutrients Rapidly losing remaining acres

Temperate Deciduous Forest Most of the trees survive winter by dropping their leaves, which decay and produce a nutrient-rich soil. Figure 5-22

Evergreen Coniferous Forests (Taiga) Consist mostly of cone-bearing evergreen trees that keep their needles year-round to help the trees survive long and cold winters. Figure 5-23

Temperate Rain Forests Coastal areas support huge cone-bearing evergreen trees such as redwoods and Douglas fir in a cool moist environment. Figure 5-24

MOUNTAIN BIOMES High-elevation islands of biodiversity Cover ¼ of land surface Dramatic changes in soil, climate, plants over short distances Help regulate climate: snow-covered peaks reflect solar radiation Water cycle: Glacier ice, gradually release water to lower-elevation streams and ecosystems. Figure 5-25

HUMAN IMPACTS ON TERRESTRIAL BIOMES Human activities have damaged or disturbed more than half of the world’s terrestrial ecosystems. Humans have had a number of specific harmful effects on the world’s deserts, grasslands, forests, and mountains.

Natural Capital Degradation Desert Large desert cities Soil destruction by off-road vehicles Soil salinization from irrigation Figure 5.26 Natural capital degradation: major human impacts on the world’s deserts. QUESTION: What are three direct and three indirect harmful effects of your lifestyle on deserts? Depletion of groundwater Land disturbance and pollution from mineral extraction Fig. 5-26, p. 123

Natural Capital Degradation Grasslands Conversion to cropland Release of CO2 to atmosphere from grassland burning Overgrazing by livestock Figure 5.27 Natural capital degradation: major human impacts on the world’s grasslands. Some 70% of Brazil’s tropical savanna—once the size of the Amazon—has been cleared and converted to the world’s biggest grain growing area. QUESTION: What are three direct and three indirect harmful effects of your lifestyle on grasslands? Oil production and off-road vehicles in arctic tundra Fig. 5-27, p. 123

Natural Capital Degradation Forests Clearing for agriculture, livestock grazing, timber, and urban development Conversion of diverse forests to tree plantations Damage from off-road vehicles Figure 5.28 Natural capital degradation: major human impacts on the world’s forests. QUESTION: What are three direct and three indirect effects of your lifestyle on forests? Pollution of forest streams Fig. 5-28, p. 124

Natural Capital Degradation Mountains Agriculture Timber extraction Mineral extraction Hydroelectric dams and reservoirs Increasing tourism Urban air pollution Figure 5.29 Natural capital degradation: major human impacts on the world’s mountains. QUESTION: What are three direct and three indirect harmful effects of your lifestyle on mountains? Increased ultraviolet radiation from ozone depletion Soil damage from off-road vehicles Fig. 5-29, p. 124