Grammar three Lecture four By: Eman Alkatheery Eman Alkatheery

Part One Adjective Clauses: Restrictive Clauses versus Nonrestrictive Clauses Eman Alkatheery

Adjective Clauses An adjective (or relative) clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adjective in a sentence. It modifies nouns, pronouns, or a whole sentence. It begins with a relative pronoun. It comes immediately after the words that it modifies. In some cases, a prepositional phrase may come in between. Eman Alkatheery

Adjective Clauses Examples: The first football world cup,which took place in 1930, was held in Uruguay. I have not read the magazine that is lying on the table. People who use microwave ovens save time and money. Ovens that use microwave energy cook food quickly. The award that Mario received was for his volunteer work. Eman Alkatheery

Adjective Clauses There are several types of adjective clauses (Table 4.1, p. 156) Example Relative Pronoun Types of Clauses Biology is a subject that is very interesting.That, which, whoSubject It is a subject which I would like to study. That, which, who (m) Object Dr. Smith, whose class meets today, is an expert.whosepossessive Eman Alkatheery

Adjective Clauses example Relative Pronouns Types of Clauses I remember the café where we met.Whereplace Does the class meet at a time when you can attend? WhenTime I saw three movies, one of which was boring. Quantity + of + which or whom quantity Eman Alkatheery

Adjective Clauses Biology is a subject that is very interesting. Biology is a subject. + Biology is very interesting It is a subject which I would like to study. It is a subject. + I would like to study the subject. Dr. Smith, whose class meets today, is an expert. Dr. Smith is an expert. + His class meets today. Eman Alkatheery

Adjective Clauses Adjective clauses are divided into two types: 1. Restrictive clauses 2. Nonrestrictive clauses The type of the adjective clause determines the use of commas. Commas are only used with nonrestrictive clauses. Eman Alkatheery

Adjective Clauses Restrictive clauses (Table 4.2, p. 157) It explains which people, places, or things: not everything or everyone. It limits the noun or pronoun that it modifies to only what is described in the clause. No commas are used. The relative pronoun (that) is only used with restrictive clauses. Eman Alkatheery

Adjective Clauses Example: Men who are not married are called bachelors. The students who passed the exam will take the next level. There is only one museum that is open on Sundays. Eman Alkatheery

Adjective Clauses Nonrestrictive clauses (Table 4.2, p. 157) It does not define or limit the noun or pronoun that it modifies. It only adds more information about the word it modifies. It does not explain which people or which things. Nonrestrictive adjective clauses usually modify proper names, nouns that are unique, and nouns preceded by demonstratives. Eman Alkatheery

Adjective Clauses Examples: Professor Jones, who teaches my biology class, won a Nobel prize. We visited this pyramid, which is located in Cairo. The moon, which appears in many ancient drawings, was an ancient symbol of fertility. Eman Alkatheery

Adjective Clauses Compare: Professor Jones, who teaches my biology class, won a Nobel prize. The professor who teaches my biology class won a Nobel prize. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with Multiple meanings In some cases, a particular clause can be either restrictive or nonrestrictive. (Table 4.3, P. 157) It can either identify or give extra information. The adjective clause type can be identified by: 1. The speaker’s or writer’s point of view 2. Punctuation ( commas) Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with Multiple meanings COMPARE: My sister who lives in Jeddah teaches in a high school. My sister,who lives in Jeddah, teaches in a high school. Practice 1, P. 158 Practice 2, P. 159 Practice 3, P. 161 Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with Multiple meanings Compare: The teacher thanked the students who brought her flowers. The teacher thanked the students, who brought her flowers. The teacher pointed at the maps which are located at the back of the classroom. The teacher pointed at the maps, which are located at the back of the classroom. Eman Alkatheery

Part Two Adjective Clauses: Replacement of Subjects Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with who, that, and which A sentence with an adjective clause can be seen as a combination of two sentences. The relative pronouns who, which, and that may replace the subject of a simple sentence in order to form an adjective clause (Table 4.4., P. 163) John is a doctor. + John works hard. John, who is a doctor, works hard. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with who, that, and which In restrictive clauses, who and that refer to people, but who is preferred. Which and that refer to animals and things, but that is preferred. In nonrestrictive clauses, only who and which are used. That is not possible. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with who, that, and which The man was named Stephens. The man found the ruins. The man who found the ruins was named Stephens. The house is expensive. The house is in the 7 th street. The house that is in the 7 th street is expensive. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with who, that, and which Shakespeare wrote more than 100 sonnets. Shakespeare is a famous English poet. Shakespeare, who is a famous English poet, wrote more than 100 sonnets. Toronto is a beautiful place. Toronto is the largest city in Canada. Toronto, which is the largest city in Canada, is a beautiful place. Practice 1, P. 163 Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with who, that, and which Practice: John Fish explained the structure of DNA. John Fish is a research chemist. English words are difficult for foreigners to pronounce. English words begin with /th/ sound. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with whose Whose may replace a possessive noun, pronoun, or adjective in the subject of a simple sentence in order to form an adjective clause, e.g., Sarah’s, his, their, ….etc (Table 4.5., P. 165) Whose may be used to refer to people, animals, and things. It can also be used with both restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with Whose I retuned the book to the library. The book’s cover was torn. I returned the book whose cover was torn to the library. The nanny takes care of two children. The two children’s mother works at a hospital. The nanny takes care of the two children whose mother works at a hospital. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with Whose I read about Shakespeare. His plays are famous. I read about Shakespeare, whose plays are famous. Practice 2, p. 165 Practice 3, p. 166 Eman Alkatheery

Anticipatory it with Adjective Clauses Anticipatory it is often used with adjective clauses to place more emphasis on the word modified by the adjective clause (table 4.6, p. 167). Hernando Cortez led the Spanish conquest of central America. It was Hernando Cortez who led the Spanish conquest of central America. An environmental disaster caused the end of the Mayan Empire. It was an environmental disaster that caused the end of the Mayan Empire. Eman Alkatheery

Anticipatory it with Adjective Clauses Did an environmental disaster cause the end of the Mayan empire? Was it an environmental disaster that caused the end of the Mayan empire? The verb in the adjective clause is singular or plural depending on the complement of the main clause. Eman Alkatheery

Anticipatory it with Adjective Clauses Olive oil fights heart diseases. It is olive oil that fights heart diseases. Apples strengthen your health. It is apples that strengthen your health. A football match is aired on TV now. It is a football match that is aired on TV now. Practice 4, p. 167 Eman Alkatheery

Part Three Adjective Clauses: Replacement of Objects Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with whom, that, and which: Replacement of Objects The relative pronouns whom, which, and that may replace the object of a simple sentence in order to form an adjective clause. In restrictive clauses that refer to people, who(m) and that can be used, or the relative pronoun can be omitted. Whom is preferred in formal English. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with whom, that, and which: Replacement of Objects In restrictive clauses that refer to animals and things, which and that can be used, or the relative pronoun can be omitted. In nonrestrictive clauses, only who(m) and which are used, and they cannot be omitted (table 4.7, p. 172) Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with whom, that, and which: Replacement of Objects Restrictive clauses (people): The artists lived centuries ago. Historians credit them for the statues. Restrictive clauses( things): The figure is of a horse. I like this figure the most. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with whom, that, and which: Replacement of Objects The artists whom historians credit for the statues lived centuries ago. The artists who historians credit for the statues lived centuries ago. The artists that historians credit for the statues lived centuries ago. The artists historians credit for the statues lived centuries ago. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with whom, that, and which: Replacement of Objects The figure which I like the most is of a horse. The figure that I like the most is of a horse. The figure I like the most is of a horse. Practice 1, p. 172 Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with whom, that, and which: Replacement of Objects Ahmad is a doctor. I invited Ahmad to my party. Ahmad, whom I invited to my party, is a doctor. Ahmad, who I invited to my party, is a doctor. Paris is a beautiful city. I visited Paris last summer. Paris, which I visited last summer, is a beautiful city. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with whom, that, and which: Replacement of Objects of prepositions The relative pronouns whom, which, and that may replace the object of a preposition in a simple sentence in order to form an adjective clause. In formal English, the preposition is sometimes placed before the relative pronoun. In this case only whom and which are used. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with whom, that, and which: Replacement of Objects of prepositions If the preposition is placed at the end of a restrictive clause, that can also be used, or the relative pronoun can be omitted. This construction is frequently used in conversational English, but it is not preferred in formal written English. In nonrestrictive clauses, whom or which must be used. (table 4.8, p.173) Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with whom, that, and which: Replacement of Objects of prepositions Restrictive Clause ( people): Bill is the man. I spoke to the man. Bill is the man to whom I spoke. Bill is the man whom I spoke to. Bill is the man who I spoke to. Bill is the man that I spoke to. Bill is the man I spoke to. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with whom, that, and which: Replacement of Objects of prepositions She is the director. I wrote to the director. She is the director to whom I wrote. She is the director whom I wrote to. She is the director who I wrote to. She is the director that I wrote to. She is the director I wrote to. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with whom, that, and which: Replacement of Objects of prepositions The gods are depicted in the statues. The Greeks believed in them. The gods in whom the Greeks believed are depicted in the statues. The gods whom the Greeks believed in are depicted in the statues. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with whom, that, and which: Replacement of Objects of prepositions The gods who the Greeks believed in are depicted in the statues. The gods that the Greeks believed in are depicted in the statues. The gods the Greeks believed in are depicted in the statues. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with whom, that, and which: Replacement of Objects of prepositions Restrictive Clauses (things): It is the studio. He works for the studio. It is the studio for which he works. It is the studio which he works for. It is the studio that he works for. It is the studio he works for. Practice 2, p. 174 Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with whom, that, and which: Replacement of Objects of prepositions The museum has many Greek artifacts. I bought some books at the museum. The museum at which I bought some books has many Greek artifacts. The museum which I bought some books at has many Greek artifacts. The museum that I bought some books at has many Greek artifacts. The museum I bought some books at has many Greek artifacts. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with whom, that, and which: Replacement of Objects of prepositions Nonrestrictive clauses: Sarah Palin lost the election. I voted for Sarah Palin. Sarah Palin, for whom I voted, lost the election. Sarah Palin, whom I voted for, lost the election. Paris is a beautiful city. I went to Paris. Paris, to which I went last summer, is a beautiful city. Paris, which I went to last summer, is a beautiful city. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with whose: Replacement of Objects Whose may replace a possessive noun in the object of a preposition in a simple sentence in order to form an adjective clause (Table 4.9., P. 175) Whose may be used to refer to people, animals, and things. It can also be used with both restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses. It can not be omitted. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with whose: Replacement of Objects One of Greece’s greatest philosophers was Socrates. Plato put Socrates’ ideas in writing. One of Greece’s greatest philosophers was Socrates, whose ideas Plato put in writing. He is the actor. I go to his films. He is the actor whose films I go to. Practice 3, p. 175 Eman Alkatheery

Superlatives and adjective clauses Restrictive clauses are often used after superlative constructions. Adjective clauses are used to identify superlatives. The is generally used with the noun being modified. (table 4.10, p. 176) Practice 4, p. 176 Eman Alkatheery

Superlatives and adjective clauses Several of the greatest statues that were originally in the Parthenon are now in London. Fifty of the most important statues that were removed were sold to the British museum. Some of the most beautiful statues that we have ever seen are in the British museum. Eman Alkatheery

Part Four: Other Adjective Clause Constructions Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with when and where When and where may be used to form adjective clauses. In nonrestrictive clauses, only when, where, or which + preposition are used. In restrictive clauses, that or that + preposition can also be used, or the relative pronoun can be omitted. (table 4.11, p. 179) Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with when Restrictive clauses with when, that or Ø: At the time, the statues were still standing. The Dutch arrived then. At the time when the Dutch arrived, the statues were still standing. At the time that the Dutch arrived, the statues were still standing. At the time the Dutch arrived, the statues were still standing. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with when The lives of Germans suddenly changed on the night. East German soldiers began building the Berlin Wall during that night. The lives of Germans suddenly changed on the night when East German soldiers began building the Berlin Wall. The lives of Germans suddenly changed on the night that East German soldiers began building the Berlin Wall. The lives of Germans suddenly changed on the night East German soldiers began building the Berlin Wall. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with when Nonrestrictive clauses with when: In 1722, the statues were still standing. the Dutch arrived then. In 1722,when the Dutch arrived, the statues were still standing. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with when On November 9, 1989, their lives changed again. The wall was torn down on November 9, On November 9, 1989, when the wall was torn down, their lives changed again. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with where Restrictive clauses with where, which, that or Ø : This is an island. An advanced society had flourished here. This is an island where an advanced society had flourished. This is an island on which an advanced society had flourished. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with where This is an island which an advanced society had flourished on. This is an island that an advanced society had flourished on. This is an island an advanced society had flourished on. Eman Alkatheery

Clauses with where Nonrestrictive clauses with where, or which: This is Easter island. An advanced society had flourished here. This is Easter island, where an advanced society had flourished. This is Easter island, on which an advanced society had flourished. This is Easter island, which an advanced society had flourished on. Practice 1, p. 179 Eman Alkatheery

Restrictive clauses modifying people Subject object object of preposition Who That prep + whom whom whom + prep who who + prep that that + prep Ø Ø + prep Eman Alkatheery

Nonrestrictive clauses modifying people Subject object object of preposition Who prep + whom whom whom + prep who Eman Alkatheery

Restrictive clauses modifying things and animals Subjectobject object of preposition which That prep + which which which+ prep that that + prep Ø Ø + prep Eman Alkatheery

nonrestrictive clauses describing things and animals Subject object object of preposition which prep + which which+ prep Eman Alkatheery

Nonrestrictive Adjective Clauses and Expressions of Quantity Expressions such as one of, some of, all of, none of, each of, both of, the rest of, either of and neither of may be used to begin nonrestrictive adjective clauses. These clauses must include whom and which, depending on whether an object or person is being described. These clauses must be preceded and/or followed by commas. (table 4.12, p. 180) Eman Alkatheery

Nonrestrictive Adjective Clauses and Expressions of Quantity Sailors attacked the islanders. Three of the islanders were killed. Sailors attacked the islanders, three of whom were killed. These statues are world famous. Many of them weigh over 20 tons. These statues, many of which weigh over 20 tons, are world famous. Eman Alkatheery

Nonrestrictive Adjective Clauses and Expressions of Quantity They sailed two ships. Neither of the ships was safe. Neither ship was safe. They sailed two ships, neither of which was safe. The citizens of Puerto Rico are well educated. Ninety percent of them are literate. The citizens of Puerto Rico, ninety percent of whom are literate, are well educated. Eman Alkatheery

Nonrestrictive Adjective Clauses and Expressions of Quantity She gave two answers. Both answers were incorrect. She gave two answers, both of which were incorrect. The top students received scholarships. All of the students graduated with honors. The top students, all of whom graduated with honors, received scholarships. Practice 2, p. 180 Eman Alkatheery

Nonrestrictive Adjective Clauses and Expressions of Quantity The top students received scholarships. The school awarded half of the top students. The top students, half of whom the school awarded, received scholarships. Eman Alkatheery

Adjective Clauses and Subject/Verb Agreement The form of the verb in the adjective clause depends on the noun being modified. Use a singular verb in an adjective clause that modifies a singular noun. Use a plural verb in an adjective clause that modifies a plural noun. (table 4.13, p. 181). Eman Alkatheery

Adjective Clauses and Subject/Verb Agreement The islander who was kidnapped later died. The islanders who were kidnapped later died. The student who is working alone is a friend of mine. The students who are working together are friends of mine. Eman Alkatheery

Adjective Clauses and Subject/Verb Agreement Use plural verbs with adjective clauses that follow one of the + plural noun. The clause modifies the plural noun in the prepositional phrase. In conversational English, a singular verb may sometimes be used. (table 4.13, p. 181). Example: It is one of the islands that were formed by volcanoes. Eman Alkatheery

Adjective Clauses and Subject/Verb Agreement Use a singular verb with the only one, even though a plural noun follows in the prepositional phrase. (table 4.13, p. 181). Example: It was the only one of the islands that was formed by volcanoes. Practice 3, p. 181 Practice 4, p. 182 Eman Alkatheery

Adjective Clauses and Subject/Verb Agreement Compare: It was the only one of the islands that was formed by volcanoes. It is one of the islands that were formed by volcanoes. Eman Alkatheery

Part Five: Adjective Clauses to Phrase Reduction Eman Alkatheery

Adjective Clauses to Phrase Reduction Adjective clauses can be reduced to participial phrases. A participial phrase is a phrase that contains a past participle (eaten) or present participle(eating). Participial phrases can be formed from adjective clauses if the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause. The time of the phrase is determined by the verb of the main clause or the general context. Eman Alkatheery

Reduction of Adjective Clauses with Verbs in the Active Voice In adjective clauses with verbs in the active voice, eliminate the connecting word (relative pronoun), and use the present participle of the main verb. The present participle is used to replace the verbs in variety of tenses. To form the negative, use (not) before the present participle. If the adjective clause has commas, the participial phrase has commas, too. (Table 4.14, p. 186) Eman Alkatheery

Reduction of Adjective Clauses with Verbs in the Active Voice The Taj Mahal, which sits on the Yamuna River, is one of the architectural wonders of the world. The Taj Mahal, sitting on the Yamuna River, is one of the architectural wonders of the world. Shah Jahan’s son, who didn’t respect Jahan, overthrew his father and placed him in prison. Shah Jahan’s son, not respecting Jahan, overthrew his father and placed him in prison. Eman Alkatheery

Reduction of Adjective Clauses with Verbs in the Active Voice The emperor who ruled the Agra region of India at that time was named Shah Jahan. The emperor ruling the Agra region of India at that time was named Shah Jahan. The Taj Mahal was built by thousands of craftsmen who worked day and night for 22 years. The Taj Mahal was built by thousands of craftsmen working day and night for 22 years. Practice 1, p. 186 Eman Alkatheery

Reduction of Adjective Clauses with Verbs in the Active Voice A woman who was hurrying to catch the bus tripped and fell. A woman hurrying to catch the bus tripped and fell. Many students who study at this university are from foreign countries. Many students studying at this university are from foreign countries. Eman Alkatheery

Reduction of Adjective Clauses with Verbs in the Passive Voice In adjective clauses with verbs in the passive voice, eliminate the connecting word (relative pronoun) and (is, was, were, are). Use the past participle of the main verb. To form the negative, use (not) at the beginning of the adjective clause. If the passive verb is a continuous tense, being +past participle. If the adjective clause has commas, the participial phrase has commas, too. (Table 4.15, p. 188) Eman Alkatheery

Reduction of Adjective Clauses with Verbs in the Passive Voice The Taj Mahal, which was built by Shah Jahan, is made of white marble. The Taj Mahal, built by Shah Jahan, is made of white marble. The temples that were being built during this time had a variety of designs. The temples being built during this time had a variety of designs. Eman Alkatheery

Reduction of Adjective Clauses with Verbs in the Passive Voice Today tourists flock to Machu Picchu, which was discovered by archeologists in Today tourists flock to Machu Picchu, discovered by archeologists in Some cities that were not protected by walls fell into invaders. Some cities not protected by walls fell into invaders. Eman Alkatheery

Reduction of Adjective Clauses with Verbs in the Passive Voice Research papers that are not handed in by Wednesday will not be accepted. Research papers not handed in by Wednesday will not be accepted. The languages that are spoken in Switzerland are German, French, and Italian. The languages spoken in Switzerland are German, French, and Italian. Practice 2, p. 188 Eman Alkatheery

Reduction of Adjective Clauses with Verbs in the Perfect Tense Adjective clauses with verbs in the present perfect or the past perfect may be reduced into in two ways. 1. The verbs (have, has, had) can be changed to ( having) plus the past participle of the main verb. 2. The verbs ( have, has, had) are eliminated, and the main verb is changed to the present participle. However, this way does not stress the completion of the action. Eman Alkatheery

Reduction of Adjective Clauses with Verbs in the Perfect Tense With clauses in the passive voice, (having + been + past participle) ) are used. ( Not) for the negative and adverbs are place at the beginning of the participial phrase. Punctuation of participial phrases depends on the adjective clauses being reduced. If the adjective clause is nonrestrictive, then the participial phrase is punctuated. Otherwise, it does not. ( Table 4.16, p. 190) Eman Alkatheery

Reduction of Adjective Clauses with Verbs in the Perfect Tense Active voice: The secrets of the universe, which have fascinated people for centuries, are slowly being discovered. The secrets of the universe, having fascinated people for centuries, are slowly being discovered. The workers, who had finally finished the temple, returned to their villages. The workers, finally having finished the temple, returned to their villages. Eman Alkatheery

Reduction of Adjective Clauses with Verbs in the Perfect Tense Passive voice: There are new sections of the Great Wall that have been discovered recently. There are new sections of the Great Wall having been discovered recently. The president, who has been elected by the majority, promised to make radical changes. The president, having been elected by the majority, promised to make radical changes. Eman Alkatheery

Reduction of Adjective Clauses with Verbs in the Perfect Tense Five workers, who had already been paid, left for their villages. Five workers, already having been paid, left for their villages. The workers who had not been paid refused to continue on the project. The workers not having been paid refused to continue on the project. Practice 3, p. 190 Eman Alkatheery

Placement of Nonrestrictive Participial Phrases Nonrestrictive participial phrases are reduced from nonrestrictive adjective clauses. If the nonrestrictive participial phrase modifies the subject, it can be placed either before or after the subject. (Table 4.17, p. 192) Occasionally, a nonrestrictive participial phrase is placed at the end of the sentence only if there is no confusion about which noun is being described. Eman Alkatheery

Placement of Nonrestrictive Participial Phrases Sarah, hurrying to catch the bus, tripped and fell. Hurrying to catch the bus, Sarah tripped and fell. Machu Picchu, which is located high in the Andes, was constructed by the Incas. Machu Picchu, located high in the Andes, was constructed by the Incas. Located high in the Andes, Machu Picchu was constructed by the Incas. Practice 4, p. 192 Eman Alkatheery

Appositives Adjective clauses with verb ( to be) can be reduced to phrases by eliminating the relative pronoun and the verb. These are called ( appositives). Commas are used with appositives. Also, word order can often be changed in appositives. Table 4.18, p. 193 Eman Alkatheery

Appositives Shah Jahan, who was the fifth emperor of the Mogul Empire, built the Taj Mahal. Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor of the Mogul Empire, built the Taj Mahal. (after the subject The fifth emperor of the Mogul Empire, Shah Jahan, built the Taj Mahal. Eman Alkatheery

Appositives George Washington, who was the first president of the United States, was a General in the army. George Washington, the first president of the United States, was a General in the army. The first president of the United States, George Washington, was a General in the army. Paris, which is the capital of France, is an exciting city. Paris,the capital of France, is an exciting city. The capital of France, Paris, is an exciting city. Eman Alkatheery