SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT 1. RATIO SCHEDULES PROVIDE A REWARD AFTER A CERTAIN NUMBER OF RESPONSES (RATIO = NUMBER) 2. INTERVAL SCHEDULES PROVIDE REWARD AFTER A CERTAIN TIME INTERVAL Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain set number of responses Example: A factory workers gets paid after every 10 cases of a product are completed

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) The number of responses for a reward (reinforcement) varies Example: Telemarketers never know how many calls it takes to make a sale slot machine pay-offs

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Time period between rewards remains constant Example: Weekly paycheck Quarterly school grades

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain amount of time, but that amount varies Example: Random visits from the boss who delivers praise Fishing

THE PROBLEM OF PUNISHMENT PUNISHMENT AN AVERSIVE CONSEQUENCE USED TO WEAKEN THE BEHAVIOR THAT FOLLOWS HOW DOES THIS DIFFER FROM NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

PUNISHMENT VS. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Loud NoisePress Lever Loud Noise Removed Loud Noise Applied Response Consequence Negative Reinforcement Punishment No Noise

TWO TYPES OF PUNISHMENT 1. POSITIVE PUNISHMENT THE APPLICATION OF AN AVERSIVE STIMULUS AFTER A RESPONSE TOUCHING A HOT STOVE WILL LIKELY REDUCE THE CHANCE OF IT HAPPENING AGAIN WASHING YOUR MOUTH OUT WITH SOAP FOR SWEARING Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

TWO TYPES OF PUNISHMENT 2. NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT (OMISSION TRAINING) THE REMOVAL OF AN REINFORCER/STIMULUS AFTER A RESPONSE TAKING THE CAR KEYS FROM A MISBEHAVING TEEN A CHILD WHO TALKS BACK MAY NOT BE ALLOWED TO WATCH IT’S FAVORITE CARTOON Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

FOUR KINDS OF CONSEQUENCES Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Positive or appetitive Negative or aversive STIMULUS - Remove Negative Reinforcement Aspirin curing headache causes more aspirin use Omission Training Missing dinner leads to less staying out late + Present Positive Reinforcement Bonus for working hard leads to more hard work Punishment Getting speeding ticket leads to less speeding

WHY PUNISHMENT DOESN’T WORK 1.THE POWER OF PUNISHMENT USUALLY DISAPPEARS WHEN THREAT OF PUNISHMENT IS REMOVED PUNISHMENT… 2. …OFTEN TRIGGERS AGGRESSION OR ESCAPE 3. …MAY INCREASE APPREHENSION IN THE LEARNER, INHIBITING THE LEARNING NEW AND BETTER RESPONSES 4. …IS OFTEN UNFAIR AND APPLIED UNEQUALLY Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

WHEN DOES PUNISHMENT WORK? IT MUST BE IMMEDIATE IT MUST BE IMMEDIATE IT MUST BE CERTAIN AND CONSISTENT IT MUST BE CERTAIN AND CONSISTENT IT SHOULD BE LIMITED IN DURATION AND INTENSITY IT SHOULD BE LIMITED IN DURATION AND INTENSITY SHOULD BE CLEARLY TARGET THE BEHAVIOR, NOT THE PERSON SHOULD BE CLEARLY TARGET THE BEHAVIOR, NOT THE PERSON LIMITED TO THE SITUATION IN WHICH THE RESPONSE OCCURRED LIMITED TO THE SITUATION IN WHICH THE RESPONSE OCCURRED SHOULD NOT SEND MIXED MESSAGES (I CAN HIT YOU BUT YOU CAN’T HIT OTHERS SHOULD NOT SEND MIXED MESSAGES (I CAN HIT YOU BUT YOU CAN’T HIT OTHERS NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT IS THE MOST EFFECTIVE NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT IS THE MOST EFFECTIVE Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

ALTERNATIVES TO PUNISHMENT EXTINCTION REINFORCING PREFERRED ACTIVITIES THE PREMACK PRINCIPLE PROMPTING AND SHAPING Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

OPERANT AND CLASSICAL CONDITIONING COMPARED CLASSICAL CONDITIONING INVOLVES THE ASSOCIATION OF TWO STIMULI (UCS + CS) BEFORE THE RESPONSE OR BEHAVIOR IT IS LARGELY A RESPONSE TO PAST STIMULATION AND ENDS WITH THE RESPONSE OPERANT CONDITIONING INVOLVES A REINFORCING (REWARD) OR PUNISHING STIMULUS AFTER A RESPONSE OR BEHAVIOR IS DIRECTED AT ATTAINING SOME FUTURE REINFORCEMENT OR AVOIDING PUNISHMENT AND REQUIRES A STIMULUS THAT FOLLOWS THE RESPONSE Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

HOW DOES COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY EXPLAIN LEARNING? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 According to cognitive psychology, some forms of learning must be explained as changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior alone

INSIGHT LEARNING – PROBLEM SOLVING OCCURS BY MEANS OF A SUDDEN REORGANIZATION OF PERCEPTIONS.. SUDDENLY PERCEIVING FAMILIAR OBJECTS IN NEW FORMS OR RELATIONSHIPS COGNITIVE MAPS – A MENTAL REPRESENTATION OF PHYSICAL SPACE Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning?

WOLFGANG KÖHLER AND INSIGHT LEARNING EXAMPLE: CHIMP STACKS CRATES TO REACH FOOD THIS IS A FORM OF COGNITIVE LEARNING BEHAVIORISM HAS NO CONVINCING STIMULUS- RESPONSE EXPLANATION FOR KOHLER’S DEMONSTRATION. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

KÖHLER OBSERVED THE MANNER IN WHICH CHIMPANZEES SOLVE PROBLEMS, SUCH AS THAT OF RETRIEVING BANANAS WHEN POSITIONED OUT OF REACH. HE FOUND THAT THEY STACKED WOODEN CRATES TO USE AS MAKESHIFT LADDERS, IN ORDER TO RETRIEVE THE FOOD. KÖHLER CONCLUDED THAT THE CHIMPS HAD NOT ARRIVED AT THESE METHODS THROUGH TRIAL-AND-ERROR (WHICH THORNDIKE HAD CLAIMED TO BE THE BASIS OF ALL ANIMAL LEARNING, THROUGH HIS LAW OF EFFECT) RATHER THEY HAD EXPERIENCED AN INSIGHT (ALSO KNOWN AS AN “AHA EXPERIENCE”), IN WHICH, HAVING REALIZED THE ANSWER, THEY THEN PROCEEDED TO CARRY IT OUT IN A WAY THAT WAS “PURPOSEFUL.” Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

EDWARD TOLMAN’S COGNITIVE MAP ORGANISMS LEARN THE SPATIAL LAYOUT OF THEIR ENVIRONMENTS BY EXPLORATION, EVEN IF THEY ARE NOT REINFORCED FOR EXPLORING (EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE: ANIMALS FORGING FOR FOOD) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

EDWARD TOLMAN’S COGNITIVE MAP ARGUED THAT IS WAS A COGNITIVE MAP THAT ACCOUNTED FOR A RAT QUICKLY SELECTING AN ALTERNATIVE ROUTE IN A MAZE WHEN THE PREFERRED PATH WAS BLOCKED CHALLENGED THE WORK OF PAVLOV, WATSON, AND SKINNER CLAIMED LEARNING WAS MENTAL, NOT BEHAVIORAL. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

EXAMPLES OF COGNITIVE MAPS GIVING DIRECTIONS WALKING THROUGH YOUR HOUSE IN THE DARK Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING: BANDURA’S CHALLENGE TO BEHAVIORISM A FORM OF COGNITIVE LEARNING WE LEARN BY WATCHING OTHERS’ BEHAVIOR AND THE CONSEQUENCES OF THEIR BEHAVIOR ALBERT BANDURA: PROPOSED THAT REWARDS CAN BE EFFECTIVE IF WE MERELY SEE SOMEONE ELSE GET THEM Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

BANDURA’ BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT 1961 BANDURA FOUND THAT THE CHILDREN EXPOSED TO THE AGGRESSIVE MODEL WERE MORE LIKELY TO ACT IN PHYSICALLY AGGRESSIVE WAYS THAN THOSE WHO WERE NOT EXPOSED TO THE AGGRESSIVE MODEL. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

WATCH THE VIDEO ALBERT BANDURA BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT ON YOUTUBE Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Bobo Experiment Video

CHILDREN SEE, CHILDREN DO WATCH THE VIDEO CHILDREN SEE. CHILDREN DO. ON YOUTUBE Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

RECENT COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGISTS FINDINGS RESCORLA HAS SHOWN THAT THE MOST CRITICAL FEATURE OF A CS IS ITS VALUE IN PREDICTING WHEN THE US WILL OCCUR KAMIN EXPANDED ON THIS CONCEPT AND DEMONSTRATED THAT A CS - R CONNECTION ONLY OCCURS IF THE CS CONTAINS UNIQUE INFORMATION ABOUT THE UCS Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

SUMMARY REINFORCEMENT CHANGES NOT ONLY THE BEHAVIOR BUT ALSO THE INDIVIDUAL’S EXPECTATIONS FOR FUTURE REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS IN SIMILAR SITUATIONS. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Reinforcement changes expectations and behavior

BRAIN MECHANISMS AND LEARNING LONG-TERM POTENTIATION BIOLOGICAL PROCESS INVOLVING THE STRENGTHENING OF SYNAPSES IN GROUPS OF NERVE CELLS; BELIEVED TO BE THE NEURAL BASIS OF LEARNING Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

ARE THERE TWO LEARNING CIRCUITS?? SIMPLE ‘MINDLESS’ LEARNING, LIKE LEARNING TO RIDE A BIKE MORE COMPLEX LEARNING THAT REQUIRES CONSCIOUS PROCESSING: CONCEPT FORMATION, INSIGHT LEARNING, OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING, MEMORY OF SPECIFIC EVENTS. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007