2000 Years of Women in Science from the bain-marie to Kevlar Dr Gillian Butcher Pioneering Women in Physics 4th March 2015

Overview Context Selective history and ideas References within society, science Selective history and ideas References -Women in Science A Social and Cultural History, Ruth Watts Routledge, 2007 -Reflections on Gender and Science, Evelyn Fox Keller Yale University Press, 1985 Also looking at history for clues as to why was (and still is) physics so male dominated? Ruth Watts prof of History of Education at Birmingham Uni

Earliest Women in Science Merit-Ptah (c. 2700 BCE) Egypt described in an inscription as "chief physician“ Agamede (c. 1194–1184 BCE) Greece cited by Homer as a healer before the Trojan War Merit-Ptah (c. 2700 BCE) Egypt earliest known female scientist

Ancient Greek Philosophy Pre-Socratic Pythagoras (582-496 BCE) Classical Greek Socrates (469-399 BCE) Plato (428-348 BCE) Aristotle (384-322 BCE) Hippocrates (460-370 BCE) Father of Western Medicine “wandering uterus” connected to hysteria the cause of women’s health problems, emotional instability and inability to reason Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand. Plato holds his Timaeus and gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms

Ancient Greek Women Theano (6th century BCE) Greece mathematician and physician Agnodike (4th century BCE) Greece first female physician to practice legally in Athens Aglaonike (2nd century BCE) of Thessaly Astronomer - predicted eclipses

Alchemy in Alexandria Mary the Jewess (?1st- 3rd centuries AD) credited with inventing several chemical instruments, including double boiler (bain-marie) and a type of still Cleopatra (3rd-4th century AD) descriptions and drawings of technical processes of furnaces author of Chrysopoeia “Gold-Making” Hypatia of Alexandria (c. 350-415 AD) wrote texts on geometry, algebra and astronomy credited with various inventions including a hydrometer, an astrolabe, and an instrument for distilling water Engraving depicting Maria Prophetissa from Michael Maier's book Symbola Aurea Mensae Duodecim Nationum (1617) Agora is a 2009 Spanish English-language historical drama film directed by Alejandro Amenábar and written by Amenábar and Mateo Gil. The biopic stars Rachel Weisz as Hypatia, a female mathematician, philosopher and astronomer in late 4th century Roman Egypt, who investigates the flaws of the geocentric Ptolemaic system and the heliocentric model that challenges it. Surrounded by religious turmoil and social unrest, Hypatia struggles to save the knowledge of classical antiquity from destruction.

Middle Ages Developments in China, India and Arab countries Europe translated existing works Universities founded Bologna 1088, Paris 1160 Oxford 1167, Cambridge 1209 Scientific method Robert Grosseteste (c.1175-1253) Roger Bacon (c.1214-1294)

Women in the Middle Ages Hildegard of Bingen (c.1098-1179) wrote theological, botanical and medicinal texts Italy Women matriculating from universities University of Bologna had women as staff England Women surgeons joining Guilds in York into 16th century Duchess of Suffolk, Alice de la Pole (1404-1475) order of Garter Duchess of Gloucester, Eleanor Cobham (c.1400-1452) accused of witchcraft The Penance of Eleanor (Abbey). Henry VIII dissolution of monastries also convents and their schools – money went to found various male colleges (HJ Mozans) Christine de Pisan (1364-c.1430) wrote in defence of women’s intellect

Revolution 1620 James I legislation on gender roles Civil War 1642-1651 questioning of existing hierarchies Diggers absolute equality for men and women in law and education Restoration 1660 gender distinction more marked Shift in attitude to and fear of women’s sexuality C17 Age of Reason also height of witch mania Industrialisation 1760-1840 led to polarised division of work and home and roles of men and women

Scientific revolution Francis Bacon (1561-1626) “father of experimental science” “a chaste and lawful marriage between Mind and Nature” Science is mastery of man over nature Nature as bride is seduced, conquered and stripped of power Mechanical v Hermetic Philosophy Alchemists “holistic” approach – harmony of man, woman and world Painting by Joseph Wright of Derby, 1771 Science or Witchcraft Act of God or Act of Satan Royal Society founded 1612 – a private Gentleman’s Club

Opportunities Technology Telescope and microscope affordable to wealthy Printing gave greater access to writings Translations of science writings Lucy Hutchinson (1620-1681) translated Lucretius’ De Rerum Natura Scientific books written for public Elizabeth Carter (1717-1806) Sir Isaac Newton’s Philosophy explained for the Use of the ladies Jane Marcet (1769-1858) Conversations on Chemistry Transmission of ideas on Education Judith Drake Essay in Defense of the Female Sex (1696) Mary Astell (1666-1731) "If all Men are born Free, why are all Women born Slaves?"

Women in Science Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle (1623-1673) Anne Finch, Viscountess Conway (1631-1679) philosopher Elena Cornaro Piscopia (1646-1684) 1st woman to graduate in Nat. Philosophy (University of Padua) Elisabeth Hevelius (1647-1693) Polish astronomer Maria Winkelmann (1670-1720) German astronomer Emilie du Châtelet (1706-1740) French physicist and mathematician Laura Bassi (1711-1778) Italian physicist 1st woman prof. in Physics in any uni. Maria Gaetana Agnesi (1718-1799) Italian mathematician Caroline Herschel (1750-1848) Ger-Br astronomer Marie Lavoisier (1758-1836) French chemist Sophie Germain (1776-1831) French mathematician Mary Somerville (1780-1872)

Professional Science and Scientists Rise of professional science – restricted access to those with qualifications Access to Oxford and Cambridge Universities was restricted Barred non-conformists eg Quakers, Methodist, Unitarian Scottish Universities more open and accessible Growing urban and commercial middle classes Royal Institution established 1799 Establishment and growth of Philosophical Societies British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS) set up 1831 Science for middle and lower classes A Classics education a sign of affluence – can afford to spend time on “useless” pursuits

Women Scientists Maria Mitchell (1818-1889) American astronomer Hertha Ayrton (1854-1923) British electrical engineer Mary Adda Blagg (1858-1944) British astronomer Dorothea Klumpke (1861-1942) American astronomer Annie Jump Cannon (1863-1941) American astronomer Maria Ogilvie Gordon (1864-1939) British geologist Marie Curie (1867-1934) Polish physicist and chemist Nobel prize Henrietta Leavitt (1868-1921) American astronomer Elsa Neumann (1872-1902) German physicist Harriet Brooks (1876-1937) Canadian nuclear physicist Lise Meitner (1878-1968) Austrian nuclear physicist Ellen Gleditsch (1879-1968) Norwegian 1st woman prof of Chemistry Emmy Noether (1882-1935) German mathematician Inge Lehmann (1888-1993) Danish seismologist Marietta Blau (1894-1970) American physicist Irène Joliot-Curie (1897-1956) French nuclear physicist

Access to Higher Education 1870-80s women admitted to Oxbridge to attend courses and take exams Women’s Colleges set up 1878 London University allowed women to graduate 1919-20 Oxford admits women to degrees 1919 Women’s Engineering Society WES founded 1928 votes for all women over age of 21

20th Century Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin (1900-79) Br-Us astronomer Mary Cartwright (1900-98) British mathematician Kathleen Lonsdale (1903-1971) Irish x-ray crystallographer Maria Goeppert Mayer (1906-1972) German-US mathematical physicist Marguerite Perey (1909-1975) French nuclear chemist Dorothy Hodgkin (1910-1994) British x-ray crystallographer Jean Hanson (1919-1973) British bio-physicist Margaret Burbidge (1919-) British astrophysicist Rosalind Franklin (1920-1958) British chemist and x-ray crystallographer Stephanie Kwolek (1923-) American chemist, invented Kevlar

20th Century 1960 dropped to 5% 1913 H.J Mozans Women in Science In US, women earning doctorates in physical and biological sciences 1920 14% 1960 dropped to 5%

Summary Throughout history Women have contributed to science Not linear progress depended on time, place, religion “I think even if I tried not to choose physics, it would choose me. It is such a fascinating subject that no matter what other work I did, I would still want to learn about physics” from Rachel Ivie and Stacy Guo (2006) Women Physicists Speak Again. AIP