1 Chapter 5 Understanding Performance Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

2 Module 1: Basic Model of Performance Basic definitions –Performance: Actions or behaviors –Effectiveness: Evaluation of results of performance –Productivity: Ratio of effectiveness (output) to cost of achieving that level of effectiveness (input) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

3 Campbell’s Model of Job Performance 3 direct determinants of job performance –Declarative knowledge (DK) –Procedural knowledge & skill (PKS) –Motivation (M) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

4 Campbell’s Determinants of Job Performance Figure 5.1 Campbell’s Determinants of Job Performance Source: Based on Campbell, McCloy, Oppler, & Sager (1993).

5 Campbell’s Model (cont'd) 8 basic performance components –3 are essential for every job Core task proficiency Demonstrated effort Maintenance of personal discipline Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

6 Full Campbell Model Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Figure 5.2 The Full Campbell Model Source: Based on Campbell, McCloy, Oppler, & Sager (1993).

7 Criterion Deficiency & Contamination Ultimate (theoretical) criterion –Ideal measure of all relevant aspects of job performance Actual criterion –Actual measure of job performance obtained Differences between ultimate criterion & actual criterion represent imperfections in measurement – contamination & deficiency Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

8 Criterion Deficiency & Contamination (cont'd) Criterion deficiency –When actual criterion is missing information that is part of behavior one is trying to measure Criterion contamination –When actual criterion includes information unrelated to the behavior one is trying to measure Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

9 Criterion Contamination, Deficiency, & Relevance Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Figure 5.3 Criterion Contamination, Deficiency, and Relevance

10 Module 2: Extensions of the Basic Performance Model Task performance (Doing just what is expected) vs. Contextual performance (Going beyond what is expected) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Royalty-Free/CORBIS

11 Task Performance Requirements vary from job to job Individual differences tied to abilities & knowledge Activities part of job description Common to most jobs Individual differences tied to personality Activities not part of job description Supports organizational environment Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Contextual Performance

12 Contextual Performance – 5 aspects –Persisting with enthusiasm & extra effort –Volunteering to carry out task activities not in job description –Helping & cooperating with others –Following organizational rules & procedures –Endorsing, supporting, & defending organizational objectives Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

13 Contextual Performance (cont'd) Increasing importance in today’s workplace –Global competition will require more effort from employees –Teams are more common now –Downsizing requires adaptability & extra effort –Customer service increasingly important Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

14 Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) –Altruism Helpful behaviors directed toward individuals or groups –Generalized compliance Helpful behaviors directed toward the broader organization Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

15 Types of Performance Measures Objective performance measures –Quantitative count of the results of work Judgmental measures –Evaluation of the effectiveness of an individual’s work Personnel measures –Typically kept in personnel file (e.g., absences, accidents, rate of advancement) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

16 Adaptive Performance Beneficial due to changing nature of work –Changing technologies alter work tasks –Mergers, downsizing, & corporate restructuring –Globalization & working in different cultures Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

17 Adaptive Performance: 8 Dimensions –Handling emergencies or crisis situations –Handling work stress –Solving problems creatively –Dealing with uncertain work situations –Learning work tasks, technologies, & procedures –Demonstrating interpersonal adaptability –Demonstrating cultural adaptability –Demonstrating physically oriented adaptability Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

18 Expert Performance Performance exhibited by those who have practiced for at least 10 years & have spent average of 4 hours/day in deliberate practice Deliberate practice –Individualized training on tasks selected by a qualified teacher Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. PhotoLink/Getty Images

19 Constraints on Performance Counterproductive employee behaviors –Voluntary behavior violating significant organizational norms & threatening organization, its members, or both –Interpersonal deviance –Organizational deviance Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

20 Hierarchical Model of Deviance (Sackett & DeVore) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Figure 5.5 Sackett and DeVore’s Hierarchical Model of Deviance Source: Based on Sackett & Devore (2001).

21 Common Counterproductive Behaviors Dishonesty –Employee theft or dishonest communications Absenteeism –Failure to report for or remain at work as scheduled Sabotage –Acts that damage, disrupt, or subvert the organization’s operations Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

22 Module 3: Job Analysis: Fundamental Properties & Practices Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Job analysis –Process that determines “essence” of a collection of tasks falling within scope of particular job title Filename: 7055.JPG

23 Uses of Job Analysis Information Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Job description Criterion development Workforce reduction Promotion Compensation Training Selection Recruiting Performance assessment

24 Brief History of Job Analysis 1922 – Viteles & job psychograph –Used in job analysis to display mental requirements of a job Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

25 Types of Job Analysis Task-oriented job analysis –Begins with statement of actual tasks & what is accomplished by those tasks Worker-oriented job analysis –Focuses on attributes of the worker necessary to accomplish tasks Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

26 KSAOs –Knowledge Collection of discrete, related facts & information about a particular domain –Skill Practiced act –Ability Stable capacity to engage in a specific behavior –Other characteristics: interests, training, etc. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

27 Role of Job Analysis in Assessment Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Figure 5.8 The Role of Job Analysis in Assessment

28 Potential distorting influences in JA –Need of subject matter expert (SME) to conform to what others report –Desire to make one’s job look more difficult –Attempts to provide answers that SME thinks job analyst wants –Carelessness Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

29 How Job Analysis is Done 1.Observation 2.Interviews: Incumbent, Supervisor 3.Critical incidents & work diaries 4.Questionnaires/surveys Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

30 Module 4: Job Analysis: Newer Developments Electronic performance monitoring –Can be cost effective –Potential for providing detailed & accurate worklog –e.g., “This call may be monitored for quality control purposes.” Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Siede Preis/Getty Images

31 Cognitive Task Analysis Methods for decomposing job & task performance into discrete, measurable units with special emphasis on eliciting mental processes & knowledge content Think-aloud protocol –Approach that investigates thought processes of experts who achieve high levels of performance Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

32 Cognitive Task Analysis (cont'd) Time consuming & requires a good deal of expertise to do well Consider the following to determine whether cognitive task analysis may be worthwhile: –Persistent performance problems –Costly errors or accidents –Training difficult to transfer to job behavior –Takes a long time to achieve high levels of performance Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

33 Context of Work Conditions or characteristics of work that can change demands on the incumbent –Aspects of context Interpersonal relationships Physical work conditions Structural job characteristics Realistic job preview (RJP) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

34 New Addition to Job Analysis Instruments Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF) –Devoted to identifying personality predictors of job performance –Intended to supplement job analysis Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

35 Summary of Job Analysis Process 1.The more information gathered from the greatest number of sources, the better the job analyst can understand the job 2.Most job analyses should include considerations of personality demands & work context Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

36 Work Profiling System (WPS) PC-based job analysis instrument used to streamline job analysis process –Reduce costs –Minimizes distractions to SMEs –Increases speed & accuracy of process Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

37 Structure of WPS Questionnaires Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Figure 5.10 Structure of the WPS Questionnaires Source: Saville & Holdsworth Limited (2001).

38 Occupational Information Network or O*NET Introduced by federal government to replace the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) Electronic medium, so it can be updated instantaneously as changes occur Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

39 O*NET Data Bases Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Figure 5.12 Data Bases Forming the Foundation for O*NET Source: Mumford & Peterson (1999).

40 Competency Modeling Identifies characteristics desired across all individuals & jobs within an organization Connects individuals with organizational viability & profitability Natural extension of job analysis logic, rather than a replacement Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

41 Module 5: Job Evaluation, Comparable Worth, & the Law Job evaluation: Method for making internal pay decisions by comparing job titles to one another & determining their relative merit –Compensable factors Skills, responsibility, effort, & working conditions Equal Pay Act of 1963: requires “equal pay for equal work.” Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

42 Comparable Worth Notion that people who are performing jobs of comparable worth to an organization should receive comparable pay In the end, comparable worth is concerned with the social value of fairness Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

43 Job Analysis & Employment Litigation Competent job analysis does not guarantee validity, but absence of credible job analysis could be very damaging Growing gap between evolution of I-O psychology & Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (1978) SIOP Principles (2003) are more updated and consistent with current research Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. C. Sherburne/PhotoLink/Getty Images

44 Permissions Slide 10: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, Royalty-Free/CORBIS, Source Image ID: CB017601, Filename: TAW2067.JPG Slide 18: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, PhotoLink/Getty Images, Source Image ID: SP000868, Filename: JPG Slide 22: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, Filename: 7055.JPG Slide 24: Figure 5.7 from Viteles, M. S. (1932). Industrial psychology, p New York: W. W. Norton. Copyright 1932 by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. Used by permission of W. W. Norton & Company Inc. Slide 30: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, Siede Preis/Getty Images, Source Image ID: AA023088, Filename: OS48036.JPG Slide 35: Figure 5.9 from Guion, R. M. (1998). Assessment, measurement, and prediction, pp , 83. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Reprinted by permission of Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Slide 38: Figure 10 from Saville Holdsworth Limited (2001). The Work Profiling System (WPS) technical manual, pp. 29, 23. Boulder, CO: SHL. © 2001 SHL Group PLC. Used by permission of Saville Holdsworth Limited: Slide 40: Figure 5.12 from Mumford, M. D., & Peterson, N. G. (1999). The O*NET content model: Structural considerations in describing jobs. In N. G. Peterson, M. D. Mumford, W. C. Borman, P. R. Jeanneret, & E. A. Fleishman (Eds.) (1999). An occupational information system for the 21 st century, p. 25. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Copyright © 1999 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission. Slide 44: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, C. Sherburne/PhotoLink/Getty Images, Source Image ID: SO000477, Filename: JPG