Teaching Reading with an Attitude: What Teachers Can Do to Foster Lifelong Readers George Graham Lecture, 2008 Michael C. McKenna University of Virginia

Is lifelong reading really a worthwhile instructional goal?

Arguments against a nation of lifelong readers  High literacy rates are a very recent phenomenon. Historically, reading has been reserved for the very few. (See Caleb Crain, “Twilight of the Books,” The New Yorker, December 24, 2007, for a discussion.)  Digital technology is changing what counts as literacy. In fact, we now speak in the plural, of the new “literacies” (e.g. Don Leu, 2000, Handbook of Reading Research, Volume 3).  Not everyone may be cut out to read extensively and well. This may be the natural order of humanity. (See Ursula K. LeGuin, Harpers Magazine, February, 2008.)

I … want to question the assumption … that books are on the way out. I think they’re here to stay. It’s just that not that many people ever did read them. Why should we think everybody ought to now? Ursula K. LeGuin “Staying Awake: Notes on the Alleged Decline of Reading” Harpers Magazine February, 2008

Two kinds of trends: 1.Developmental trends within an individual 2.Historical trends across years

A Few Unpleasantries  Nearly half of all Americans ages 18 to 24 read no books for pleasure.  The percentage of 18-to-44-year-olds who read a book fell 7 points from 1992 to  Less than one-third of 13-year-olds are daily readers.  The percentage of 17-year-olds who read nothing at all for pleasure has doubled over a 20-year period.  Voluntary reading rates diminish from childhood to late adolescence.  The percentage of college graduates who report reading literature fell from 82% in 1982 to 67% in – To Read or Not to Read National Endowment for the Arts November, 2007

A Few Unpleasantries  Nearly half of all Americans ages 18 to 24 read no books for pleasure.  The percentage of 18-to-44-year-olds who read a book in the past year fell 7 points from 1992 to  Less than one-third of 13-year-olds are daily readers.  The percentage of 17-year-olds who read nothing at all for pleasure has doubled over a 20-year period.  Voluntary reading rates diminish from childhood to late adolescence.  The percentage of college graduates who report reading literature fell from 82% in 1982 to 67% in – To Read or Not to Read National Endowment for the Arts November, 2007

A Few Unpleasantries  Nearly half of all Americans ages 18 to 24 read no books for pleasure.  The percentage of 18-to-44-year-olds who read a book in the past year fell 7 points from 1992 to  Less than one-third of 13-year-olds are daily readers.  The percentage of 17-year-olds who read nothing at all for pleasure has doubled over a 20-year period.  Voluntary reading rates diminish from childhood to late adolescence.  The percentage of college graduates who report reading literature fell from 82% in 1982 to 67% in – To Read or Not to Read National Endowment for the Arts November, 2007

A Few Unpleasantries  Nearly half of all Americans ages 18 to 24 read no books for pleasure.  The percentage of 18-to-44-year-olds who read a book in the past year fell 7 points from 1992 to  Less than one-third of 13-year-olds are daily readers.  The percentage of 17-year-olds who read nothing at all for pleasure has doubled over a 20-year period.  Voluntary reading rates diminish from childhood to late adolescence.  The percentage of college graduates who report reading literature fell from 82% in 1982 to 67% in – To Read or Not to Read National Endowment for the Arts November, 2007

A Few Unpleasantries  Nearly half of all Americans ages 18 to 24 read no books for pleasure.  The percentage of 18-to-44-year-olds who read a book in the past year fell 7 points from 1992 to  Less than one-third of 13-year-olds are daily readers.  The percentage of 17-year-olds who read nothing at all for pleasure has doubled over a 20-year period.  Voluntary reading rates diminish from childhood to late adolescence.  The percentage of college graduates who report reading literature fell from 82% in 1982 to 67% in – To Read or Not to Read National Endowment for the Arts November, 2007

A Few Unpleasantries  Nearly half of all Americans ages 18 to 24 read no books for pleasure.  The percentage of 18-to-44-year-olds who read a book in the past year fell 7 points from 1992 to  Less than one-third of 13-year-olds are daily readers.  The percentage of 17-year-olds who read nothing at all for pleasure has doubled over a 20-year period.  Voluntary reading rates diminish from childhood to late adolescence.  The percentage of college graduates who report reading literature fell from 82% in 1982 to 67% in – To Read or Not to Read National Endowment for the Arts November, 2007

Five Year Trends,  Fifty-seven out of 60 cities reported fewer retail booksellers in 2007 than in  Per capita circulation of magazines in the United States increased in 87 percent of the cities studied.  All but one city declined in Sunday newspaper circulation.  Almost all the cities have more free Internet access points. More people are reading newspapers online and buying books online than in previous years.

How often do you read for fun, on your own time? Grade 4Grade

How often do you read for fun, on your own time? Grade 4Grade

How often do you read for fun, on your own time? Grade 4Grade

Attitude Trends, Grades 1-6 Attitudes toward reading tend to worsen with age. McKenna, M. C., Kear, D. J., & Ellsworth, R. A. (1995). Children’s attitudes toward reading: A national survey. Reading Research Quarterly, 30,

Attitude Trends, Grades 1-6 Attitudes worsen most for the worst readers. McKenna, M. C., Kear, D. J., & Ellsworth, R. A. (1995). Children’s attitudes toward reading: A national survey. Reading Research Quarterly, 30,

“Matthew Effect”

Attitude Trends, Grades 1-6 Girls have more positive reading attitudes than boys. McKenna, M. C., Kear, D. J., & Ellsworth, R. A. (1995). Children’s attitudes toward reading: A national survey. Reading Research Quarterly, 30,

Attitude Trends, Grades 1-6 Ethnicity is not, in itself, related to reading attitudes. McKenna, M. C., Kear, D. J., & Ellsworth, R. A. (1995). Children’s attitudes toward reading: A national survey. Reading Research Quarterly, 30,

If we hope to foster positive reading attitudes, we must first consider how attitudes are acquired.

A Definition of Attitude A learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given object. – Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975, p. 6, original emphasis Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Icek Ajzen Martin Fishbein

Think of attitudes on a scale from negative to positive … –+–+

Definition of Interest This term “is usually associated with a topic, such as dinosaurs or Civil War history.” – Guthrie and Wigfield, 2000, p. 405 Guthrie, J. T., & Wigfield, A. (2000). Engagement and motivation in reading. In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.). Handbook of reading research (Vol. 3, pp ). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. John Guthrie Allan Wigfield

General Specific Attitude toward Reading Science Fiction Attitude toward Reading Ray Bradbury

General Specific Attitude toward Reading Science Fiction Attitude toward Reading Ray Bradbury Attitude toward Reading The Martian Chronicles

 An interest is actually a micro-attitude – an attitude toward a concept smaller than reading.  We can use our knowledge of a student’s interests to motivate the student to read.  Positive experiences may also be expected to have a trickle-up effect on general attitude toward reading.

A Model of Reading Attitude Acquisition

Social Structure and Environment Beliefs about others’ expectations Beliefs about the outcomes of reading Subjective Norms contingent on: identity of others conflicting expectations specific expectations externally imposed purposes for reading Intention to Read contingent on: availability of help availability of materials interest in topic time constraints physical environment competing options physiological state nature of specific text Reading Attitude contingent on: strength of attitude personal purposes importance ascribed to specific reading activity being considered Decision to Read

Social Structure and Environment Beliefs about others’ expectations Beliefs about the outcomes of reading Subjective Norms contingent on: identity of others conflicting expectations specific expectations externally imposed purposes for reading Intention to Read contingent on: availability of help availability of materials interest in topic time constraints physical environment competing options physiological state nature of specific text Reading Attitude contingent on: strength of attitude personal purposes importance ascribed to specific reading activity being considered Decision to Read

To read or not to read – That is the question.

Social Structure and Environment Beliefs about others’ expectations Beliefs about the outcomes of reading Subjective Norms contingent on: identity of others conflicting expectations specific expectations externally imposed purposes for reading Intention to Read contingent on: availability of help availability of materials interest in topic time constraints physical environment competing options physiological state nature of specific text Reading Attitude contingent on: strength of attitude personal purposes importance ascribed to specific reading activity being considered Decision to Read

Beliefs about the Expectations of Others  Who has expectations about a child’s reading?  To what extent is the child inclined to meet those expectations?

Social Structure and Environment Beliefs about others’ expectations Beliefs about the outcomes of reading Subjective Norms contingent on: identity of others conflicting expectations specific expectations externally imposed purposes for reading Intention to Read contingent on: availability of help availability of materials interest in topic time constraints physical environment competing options physiological state nature of specific text Reading Attitude contingent on: strength of attitude personal purposes importance ascribed to specific reading activity being considered Decision to Read

Beliefs about the Outcomes of Reading  Is reading likely to be pleasurable or useful?  Or is reading likely to be boring, frustrating, even humiliating?

Finding ways to alter a child’s belief structure is a key challenge in fostering more positive attitudes.

Social Structure and Environment Beliefs about others’ expectations Beliefs about the outcomes of reading Subjective Norms contingent on: identity of others conflicting expectations specific expectations externally imposed purposes for reading Intention to Read contingent on: availability of help availability of materials interest in topic time constraints physical environment competing options physiological state nature of specific text Reading Attitude contingent on: strength of attitude personal purposes importance ascribed to specific reading activity being considered Decision to Read

Social Structure and Environment Beliefs about others’ expectations Beliefs about the outcomes of reading Subjective Norms contingent on: identity of others conflicting expectations specific expectations externally imposed purposes for reading Intention to Read contingent on: availability of help availability of materials interest in topic time constraints physical environment competing options physiological state nature of specific text Reading Attitude contingent on: strength of attitude personal purposes importance ascribed to specific reading activity being considered Decision to Read

Instruction that fosters positive attitudes should …

Provide successful and engaging experiences with reading

Instruction that fosters positive attitudes should … Provide successful and engaging experiences with reading Strengthen beliefs that reading will be pleasant

Instruction that fosters positive attitudes should … Provide successful and engaging experiences with reading Strengthen beliefs that reading will be pleasant Challenge beliefs about peer expectations concerning reading

The Economics of Reading Attitude What if reading were a product to be sold?

Reading Must Compete for “Shelf Space”

Number of Competing Choices Attitude toward Reading HiPositive LoNegative

Number of Competing Choices Attitude toward Reading HiPositive LoNegative

Reading Teachers as a Sales Force Testimonial Transfer Bandwagon Glittering Generality Name Calling Plain Folks Card Stacking

Reading Teachers as a Sales Force Testimonial Transfer Bandwagon Glittering Generality Name Calling Plain Folks Card Stacking

Reading Teachers as a Sales Force Testimonial Transfer Bandwagon Glittering Generality Name Calling Plain Folks Card Stacking

Reading Teachers as a Sales Force Testimonial Transfer Bandwagon Glittering Generality Name Calling Plain Folks Card Stacking

Reading Teachers as a Sales Force Testimonial Transfer Bandwagon Glittering Generality Name Calling Plain Folks Card Stacking

Reading Teachers as a Sales Force Testimonial Transfer Bandwagon Glittering Generality Name Calling Plain Folks Card Stacking

Reading Teachers as a Sales Force Testimonial Transfer Bandwagon Glittering Generality Name Calling Plain Folks Card Stacking The more that you read, the more things you will know. The more that you learn, the more places you’ll go.

Reading Teachers as a Sales Force Testimonial Transfer Bandwagon Glittering Generality Name Calling Plain Folks Card Stacking 

Reading Teachers as a Sales Force Testimonial Transfer Bandwagon Glittering Generality Name Calling Plain Folks Card Stacking

Reading Teachers as a Sales Force Testimonial Transfer Bandwagon Glittering Generality Name Calling Plain Folks Card Stacking

Just as in making a purchase, a child will weigh the benefits of reading against the costs.

Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading Cost of Reading in Effort and Frustration Benefits of Reading in Pleasure or Utility Lo Hi Hi Lo

Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading Cost of Reading in Effort and Frustration Benefits of Reading in Pleasure or Utility Lo Hi Hi Lo

Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading Cost of Reading in Effort and Frustration Benefits of Reading in Pleasure or Utility Lo Hi Hi Lo I’m a good reader and I love reading.

Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading Cost of Reading in Effort and Frustration Benefits of Reading in Pleasure or Utility Lo Hi Hi Lo

Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading Cost of Reading in Effort and Frustration Benefits of Reading in Pleasure or Utility Lo Hi Hi Lo I’m a good reader but I’d rather do something else.

Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading Cost of Reading in Effort and Frustration Benefits of Reading in Pleasure or Utility Lo Hi Hi Lo

Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading Cost of Reading in Effort and Frustration Benefits of Reading in Pleasure or Utility Lo Hi Hi Lo I’m not a very good reader, but I’d sure like to be.

Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading Cost of Reading in Effort and Frustration Benefits of Reading in Pleasure or Utility Lo Hi Hi Lo

Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading Cost of Reading in Effort and Frustration Benefits of Reading in Pleasure or Utility Lo Hi Hi Lo I’m not a very good reader, but then, who cares?

Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading Cost of Reading in Effort and Frustration Benefits of Reading in Pleasure or Utility Lo Hi Hi Lo

Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading Cost of Reading in Effort and Frustration Benefits of Reading in Pleasure or Utility Lo Hi Hi Lo

Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading Cost of Reading in Effort and Frustration Benefits of Reading in Pleasure or Utility Lo Hi Hi Lo

How can we move children into the high-benefit, low-cost quadrant?

Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading Cost of Reading in Effort and Frustration Benefits of Reading in Pleasure or Utility Lo Hi Hi Lo  Build proficiency  Include shorter choices  Conduct read-alouds

Nell, V. (1988). Lost in a book: The psychology of reading for pleasure. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Avid readers appear to share only one characteristic: Victor Nell

Nell, V. (1988). Lost in a book: The psychology of reading for pleasure. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Avid readers appear to share only one characteristic: Proficiency. Victor Nell

But proficiency is not enough. aliteracy n. the tendency of proficient readers not to read

Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading Cost of Reading in Effort and Frustration Benefits of Reading in Pleasure or Utility Lo Hi Hi Lo  Build on interests  Include variety and choice  Conduct read-alouds

Teacher Awareness of Student Attitudes

Two Ways to Learn about Your Students’ Attitudes 1.Ask them. 2.Watch them.

Some Ways to Ask about Attitudes  Journals  Conferences  Open-Ended Questions  Interest Inventories  Attitude Surveys

Some Ways to Ask about Attitudes  Journals  Conferences  Open-Ended Questions  Interest Inventories  Attitude Surveys

Some Ways to Ask about Attitudes  Journals  Conferences  Open-Ended Questions  Interest Inventories  Attitude Surveys

Some Ways to Ask about Attitudes  Journals  Conferences  Open-Ended Questions  Interest Inventories  Attitude Surveys

I like to read about __________

a page

Some Ways to Ask about Attitudes  Journals  Conferences  Open-Ended Questions  Interest Inventories  Attitude Surveys

Three Universal Interests (regardless of age or gender) 1. Animals 2. Humor 3. The Weird

Some Ways to Ask about Attitudes  Journals  Conferences  Open-Ended Questions  Interest Inventories  Attitude Surveys

A Tale of Cats and Dogs

12. How do you think your friends feel when you read aloud?

Agree Tend Tend Disagree to to Agree Disagree | | | |

Suggestions for Teachers  Assess attitudes and interests.  Focus on proficiency.  “Sell” reading.  Build an engaging classroom.  Build an engaging classroom library.  Use research-based techniques.

Some Effective Techniques  Avoiding denigrating group placement  Using high-quality literature  Reading aloud to children  Activating prior knowledge  Stressing links between literature and students’ lives  Teaching comprehension strategies  Cross-age interactions  Facilitating literature discussion groups  Providing older models with positive attitudes

Some Effective Techniques  Collaborative activities  Challenging materials  Projects that entail several class periods  Techniques that facilitate comprehension  Bibliotherapy

What about rewards?

Definition of Motivation the relationship between any factor, intrinsic or extrinsic, that causes an individual to act in a specific way (This is my definition.)

Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation Decision to Read Because of Positive Attitude Decision to Read Despite Negative Attitude

Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation Decision to Read Because of Positive Attitude Decision to Read Despite Negative Attitude

Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation Decision to Read Because of Positive Attitude Decision to Read Despite Negative Attitude

Rationale for Extrinsic Motivation  Reading practice will lead, over time, to improved proficiency.  Exposure to a variety of texts may result in a “connection” that will dispel negative beliefs about the outcomes of reading.  but  Rewards may foster a habit of reading only for rewards  Rewards may foster a belief that reading is inherently unmotivating

Rationale for Extrinsic Motivation  Reading practice will lead, over time, to improved proficiency.  Exposure to a variety of texts may result in a “connection” that will dispel negative beliefs about the outcomes of reading. but  Rewards may foster a habit of reading only for rewards  Rewards may foster a belief that reading is inherently unmotivating

Incentives can be expected to improve reading attitudes to the extent that they improve proficiency (and therefore self-efficacy); 2. expose children to engaging texts; and 3. do not adversely affect preexisting positive attitudes.

Suggestions for Teachers  Assess attitudes and interests.  Focus on proficiency.  “Sell” reading.  Build an engaging classroom.  Build an engaging classroom library.  Use research-based techniques.  Create novel techniques based on attitude theory.

Suggestions for Teachers  Assess attitudes and interests.  Focus on proficiency.  “Sell” reading.  Build an engaging classroom.  Build an engaging classroom library.  Use research-based techniques.  Create novel techniques based on attitude theory.

Unresolved Questions  What additional techniques can we identify?  Will national initiatives have an impact?  How can gender differences be explained?  What impact do incentive programs have?  Will digital technologies lead to better attitudes?  How can we maximize proficiency?

READ! (or else)